
Class „_ ^ '7 "i f 
Book, tj ffi f/?X 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



Mobile of the Five Flags 

The Story of the River Basin and Coast About 

Mobile from the Earliest Times 

to the Present 



By 
PETER J. HAMILTON, LL. D: 

Author of "Colonial Mobile," "Colonization of the South, 
"The Reconstruction Period," Etc. 



1913 

THE GILL PRINTING COMPANY 

Mobile 



COPYRIGHT 1913, 
BY PETER J. HAMILTON. 



(gCI.A3430l7 
/to/ 



To 

Two Little Mobilians 

Carlotta and Rachel-Duke Hamilton 

This Book is Affectionately Dedicated 

BY 

Their Father 

With the Hope That They too May Love 

The Story of Their Home 



PREFACE 

I have endeavored in this book to outhne the story of 
the Central Gulf country from the earliest times down to 
the present. In a sense it is a continuation of the work I 
began in 1897 with the publication of "Colonial Mobile." 
It is not told in as great detail, but possibly is more read- 
able on that account. It is the story of my home country,- 
and has been a labor of love. With it I probably leave the 
subject, except so far as future editions of this volume may 
call for corrections. It has occupied much of my thought 
and my investigation for many years, and is very dear 
to me; but there is a limit to' what one can do in any parti- 
cular direction. I hope in the future it may be worth the 
while of some one to take up the work where I have left 
it. 

The book was undertaken at the request of the Board 
of School Commissioners of Mobile County for use in the 
public schools, but I have endeavored to make its scope 
wide enough for general use also, since it is the only work 
covering the subject from the beginning. Many things 
and many men are omitted whom I would like to mention; 
but from the necessity of the case I have had to make a 
selection from the mass of facts available, and I have 
had to omit much that I would like to use. This applies 
especially to the period since the War, which is one of 
great economic interest, and yet difficult to handle now 
because the events and people are so close to us. For 
the last two decades I have tried to give tendencies rather 
than detailed facts. 

I have aimed at clearness rather than ornament in the 
style and the facts I hope are told so as to be readily under- 
stood. With this object the book is divided into sections. 



IX 

each dealing with a separate matter, and is therefore in 
the nature of a series of pictures, one after the other. 
If I have succeeded in making them stand out, they will be 
somewhat like a string of cameos. 

I wish to thank all who have aided me with material 
or suggestions during the progress of the work. I have 
found that it has excited general interest, and I have met 
with assistance from many quarters. It would not be 
practicable to name all who have helped, but they are 
held in grateful remembrance. 

A list of the principal authorities for each period is pre- 
fixed to the respective parts and will be found of value. 
For the first six periods I have needed little outside of these , 
and data from the Catholic Church Records supplied 
me by Bishop E. P. Allen. For the Confederate times I 
have received valuable aid from Colonel Price Williams, 
Jr., General J. W. Whiting, Judge Saffold Berney, Dr. 
Thomas M. Owen and others. For the last period of the 
book I am greatly indebted lor facts to Collector H. G. 
Ashley, Captain A. C. Danner, Ashbel Hubbard, and the 
Chamber of Commerce, and to Dr. Erwin Craighead 
for aid in the arrangement of the material in its proper 
perspective. 

The illustrations of the volume are of special interest. 
Many are original and some are unique. They are princi- 
pally from books, relics or papers in my own possession, 
but some have been kindly loaned by different peojile for 
this purpose. There were others planned for also that 
could not be obtained. The frontispiece, representing 
Mobile in 1711, has been carefully drawn by Miss Arman- 
tine Brown from contemporary maps and illustrations, 
and correctly shows the fort, houses, streets and boats of 
French Mobile. Another valuable feature of the book 
consists of the maps of the country at different times, all 
drawn on the same scale, and showing the forts and cities 



at each period. These maps were drawn by Mr. Lawrence 
H. McNeill, who has also placed upon the old Confederate 
map of the Bay the three lines of intrenchments about 
Mobile. The flags were drawn by Mr. Frank Carey and 
were added at the suggestion of the School Board. 

I am indebted for valuable suggestions to W. T. McGowin 
and M.J. Vickers of the School Board, and in proof reading 
and otherwise I have been much aided by Mrs. P. J. 
Hamilton, Miss May Eanes, Miss Mamie H. Smith, Miss 
Mabel O. Bickell, and by my little daughter, Rachel-Duke. 

The book is "Made in Mobile" from beginning to end,— 
text, printing, binding, illustrations and all, and the result 
speaks for itself. I would do injustice to my own feelings 
if I did not specially thank the publishers and Mr. Chas. 
S. Belle, the Monotype operator, and Mr. G. L. Norman 
of the Aynesley Engraving Company, who has faithfully 
reproduced the illustrations. 

Much material has necessarily been omitted, but I 
trust enough is included to give a fair picture of "Mobile 
of the Five Flags," and, with the hope that it may prove 
useful, the book is now submitted to the public. 

Peter J. Hamilton. 
Mobile, January, 1913. 



To Teachers 

I would suggest to teachers that in the use of the book 
one or two of the early lessons be devoted to going through 
the illustrations, including maps, with the aid of the list 
prefixed. Many of these are from original material, and 
taken as a whole they furnish a good introduction to the 
subject. I would also suggest that the scholars be not 
required to memorize all the names and dates, but rather 
to learn the story by sections and by periods. In a book 



• XI 

of this kind it is necessary, in order to secure accuracy, 
to give many facts which cannot be carried in the mind. 
This appHes especially to the chapter on Mobile Soldiers 
and to the last period of the book. 

While I have tried to use simple language, the subjects 
discussed cover many of the vital problems of social growth, 
and explanations may have to be made by the teacher from 
time to time. These difficulties are connected with the 
subject rather than with the form of expression. 

In order to maintain the fiow of the narrative I have 
not attempted to name the governors of the state or the 
mayors of the city except where there is special need for 
it. A list of these officials is given in the appendix and can 
be used for reference. The same is true as to some recent 
facts and statistics, which are given in the apf^endix under 
the head, "Present Mobile." 

So many foreign names of people, such as De Soto and 
Bienville, have become naturalized, so to speak, that I 
have not thought it necessary to add a table of pronouncia- 
tion of names. Where not familiar, they are generally 
simple French or Spanish words, in which it will be useful 
to remember that "a" is pronounced as in father, "e" 
as in they, "i" as in quarantine, and "u" as in plume, 
and to remember that "g" is the equivalent of "s." 

Peter J. Hamilton. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PERIOD I— THE SPANIARDS IN THE INDIAN 

COUNTRY. 
Chapter , Page 

/ The Country and the Natives 3 

// The Bay of Spiritii Santo - 16 

/// De Solo....[ 23 

IV Later Discoverors 28 

PERIOD II— A FRENCH CAPITAL. 

V Old Biloxi -..- 35 

VI Fort Louis de la Mobile..... - 42 

VII Life at the Old Fort.. - 51 

VIII Mobile ^. - 61 

IX Under a Merchant Prince 75 

X Hoiv the Creoles Lived .-. 86 

PERIOD III— A FRENCH TRADE CENTRE 

XI The Mississippi Bubble..... __ - 93 

XII Our Old Archives 101 

XIII Along the Coast 107 

XIV The Trade Contest with Charleston II4 

XV The Seven Years' War in the South 120 

PERIOD IV— A BRITISH METROPOLIS 

XVI The New Government 133 

XVII The Indian Boundary Line 138 

XVIII A Trip on the Tombigbee River 144 

XIX The Journeys of Botanist .--. 151 

XX Colonial Politics 155 

PERIOD V—OLD SPANISH TOWN. 

XXI A Latin Government 161 

XXII Ellicott's Line ___ 168 

XXIII Church of the Immaculate Conception - 172 



XIII 

Chapter Page 

XXIV Industries of the Colonists _. .. 176 

XXV Mississippi Territory and Its Neighbors 183 

PERIOD VI— THE AMERICAN CITY. 

XXVI Town Building 193 

XXVII From Fort Mims to Fort Bowyer 197 

XXVIII Alahama^^ 206 

XXIX The Coming of the Steamboat.. 213 

XXX King Cotton \.^... 218 

XXXI Flush Times and What Followed 226 

XXXII The Churches 238 

XXXIII The Mobile & Ohio Railroad 2J^5 

XXXIV The Schools 252 

XXXV Literature and the Drama 259 

XXXVI The' Golden Fifties. 268 

XXXVII State and Federal Affairs ...-. 279 

PERIOD VII— IN THE CONFEDERACY. 

XXXVIII Secession. 291 

XXXIX Running the Blockade 297 

XL The Life of the- People. 302 

XLI Mobile Soldiers • 310 

XLII Mobile Sailors .319 

XLIII Battle of Mobile Bay 327 

XLIV The End of the War 554 

PERIOD VIII— A MODERN PORT. 

XLV Reconstruction... 3^5 

XLVI The Railroad Era 359 

XLV 1 1 Seven Lean Years 366 

XLVI II The Harbor and the Rivers 375 

XLIX Groivth... 382 

L A New Century 389 



APPENDIX 

List of Governors — List of Mayors — Present Mobile. 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

Mobile in 1711.. ..Frontispiece 

The Fort of cedar and cypress stakes is shown in the 
foreground, with a little chapel towards the rear. The 
two-story house on the right is that of Chateaugue. Bien- 
ville's is to the left of the Fort. The streets, blocks, a?id 
houses conform to the map of 1711. The ships and boats 
represent French vessels of that day. On the wharf are 
Bienville and seamen in conversation, while Indians and 
sailors are in canoes on the river. The shore rises some- 
what as it goes back from the river, and among the trees 
are easily made out the oaks and pines which once occupied 
the site. 

The Spiritu Santo and the Gulf Coast, 1519 5 

This is a copy of the Ribero map now at Weimar in 
Germany. It shows the exploration of Ayllon on the 
Atlantic and of Garay, who sent out Pineda on the Gulf 
Coast. The Bay into ivhich empties the Rio Del Espiritii 
is supposed to be Mobile Bay. 

Indian Relics Near Mobile 7 

The upper lines show stone arrow-heads, the lowest line 
a stone for mixing paint, a pipe, two forms of stones for 
crushing corn and a tomahawk. These all come from 
near Mobile. The pipe is tivo inches high and the others 
are in proportion. 

Indian Relics, Alabama River 9 

The upper lines are arrow-heads from Fort Mims and 
other places up the river, — one from Fort Mims is dis- 
colored as if by blood. The third line is a series of beauti- 
ful small arroiv-points from Little River, used for bird 
hunting. The big celt or scraper at the bottom is four- 
teen inches long, and came from Clarke County, given the 
author by Isaac Grant. There is also a tomahaivk from 
near Selma. 



XV 

Cherokee Relics , 12 

Some of these arrow-heads are from near Florence and 
Hiintsville. The tomahawks and broken pitcher are from 
Asheville, N. C, in the Cherokee country. The pitcher 
. is seven inches high. 

Indian Relics, Dauphine Island 14 

Showing the animal heads which were used as handles 
to pottery. Pieces of pottery are also given, with orna- 
mentation. These articles, as well as those in the four 
preceding pictures, are in the collection of the author. 
Map of the Country in Indian Times....Facing PaCxE 19 
This gives a general idea of the country before the white 
man made a settlement. The Spiritu Santo and one or 
two other Spanish names are given on the coast. These 
and the corresponding later maps were drawn by L. H. 
McNeill, of Mobile, from information supplied by the 
author. Each gives the latitudes 29°, 31°, 33° and 
35° North Latitude, and St. Stephens Meridian. 

De Soto 23 

This picture is from the Rui Diaz History of Florida, 
published in Madrid in 1893. It shoics the armor of that 
day. 

French Flag Facing Page 33 

Of the time of Louis XIV. 

French Ships..... 38 

These are two of the vessels imprisoned in Port Dauphin 
by the storm of 1717, as shoivn upon the drawing made at 
that time and place. 

Fort Louis de la Mobile, 1702 43 

This plan was made when the place was founded in 
1702 and still exists in manuscript in the Ministry of 
the Colonies at Paris. The two round marks near the 
centre do not belong to the map; they are merely the seals of 
the Minister of the Colonies. 



XVI 

French Relics, 1702 . 46 

hi the upper line are seen two large nails, a piece of 
epaulette, and one of the fiat bricks out of which the poivder 
magazine was made. On the lozuer line is a solid shot, 
and a large bar shot. All from the site of Fort Louis. 
The bar shot is 13 inches long and of the kind used to fire 
at the rigging of ships so as to cut it down. These relics 
were found by the author in 1897, except the bar shot, 
ivhich loas found in 1913 by E. T. O'Connor. {See also 
Spanish Relics, p 180, and also Sou on Seal of West 
Florida, p. 1^7.) 
Bicentennial Monument at Old Fort Louis 49 

Erected by the citizens of Mobile at the bicentennial 
celebration at Twenty- Seven Mile Bluff, and unveiled 
with appropriate exercises. It is a block of grantie 
about four feet high. On it is: ''Erected by thejPeople 
of MobilelJamiary 23, 1902,lto Commemorate I the 200th 
anniversary I of the Founding here oflFort Louis de la 
Mobilejby Pierre le Moyne Sieur d' IbervillelandjJean 
Baptiste Le Moyne Sieur de Bienvillej. ' ' 
Bienville 52 

From Pierre Margry's great collection of documents. 
It corresponds to a painting in the Chateau Ramezay 
at Montreal. It shows the armor of the day. 
Creole Houses 59 

These are the style of those built at Mobile from the 
beginning, but do not themselves go back to French times. 
They are at the northeast corner of St. Francis and Law- 
rence Streets. 
Mobile, 1711 63 

This pla7i of the city and Fort Louis shows Mobile as it 
was established on its present site. With a large magni- 
fying glass the list of people at the top and description 
of the town at the sides gives much information. From 
a photograph furnished by the French Ministry of the 
Colonies. 



XVII 

CouTUME DE Paris 71 

The title page of the Coutume de Paris printed in 1664- 
It was formerly owned by Alfred Hennen, Esq., of Neiv 
Orleans and is now' the property of P. J. Hamilton. 

French Cannon 80 

In Bienville Square will be found two cannon, illus- 
trated in this volume, both from Fort Charlotte. This 
tapering gun is of French times. 

Harbor of La rochelle 83 

Through this entrance to the port of La Rochelle the 
French discoverers passed and repassed to Mobile. The 
picture is recent, but the towers in the foreground and the 
church in the background are ancient. 

Cannon From Fort Toulouse 85 

In the Museum of Alabama Department of Archives 
at Montgomery. The brass breechlock is itself bored and 
can be used as a gun; an unreliable tradition says that 
it belonged to De Soto. The wooden carriage is modern. 

Port Dauphin 89 

In the illustration will be seen a number of French 
houses and small boats. This is from the same draiving 
as the French Ships. 

City Hall, La Rochelle 95 

It has existed substantially in its present form for many 
centuries, and was familiar to the Frenchmen %vho founded 
Mobile. 

Mobile Coast 109 

Among the maps issued by Law's Company zvas this 
of the Coast of Louisiana, of zvhich Mobile, the Nouveau 
Fort Louis, was the principal city. It shows the location 
of the Old {Vieux) Fort and many other places. 

British Merchant Flag. Facing P. 131 

Selected because the Nation is essentially commercial. 



XVIII 

Major Robert Farmar 135 

The portrait, shoiving him in uniform, has been 
furnished by one of his descendants. The Major spelled 
his name with an "a" in the second syllable. 

Map of the Country in British Times Facing P. 137 

The Indian and French names appear, but to them 
are now added some British settlements, shoiving the 
gradual advance of the white man at the expense of the 
Indian. The map shoivs the first Indian cession, that 
of 1765 to the British. 

British Mobile ..._ 141 

The plat is takefi from Roberts' Florida. It shoivs 
Mobile as a country town about the fort, but preserving 
the outlines of the old French city. 

Seal of West Florida... 147 

Shows the British coat of arms with the lion and the 
unicorn on the obverse and on the reverse a rural scene. 
Everything is in Latin. At the sides is a copy of the 
French Sou of John Laiv's time, having on the obverse 
crossed L's under a crown, and the words ''Colonies 
Francoises." (The Sou has nothing to do with the seal.) 

British Admiralty Chart, 1771 149 

Made under the supervision of Durnford and is the 
first one giving soundings. It shows also the lay of 
the coast and its settlements at that time. 

British Cannon 156 

The piece came from Fort Charlotte, and is marked 
by the official Broad Arrow of the navy. It is notv 
mounted in Bienville Square. 

Spanish Flag.... Facing P. 159 

Spanish Flag, Eighteenth Century. 

Galvez 161 

This portrait was furnished by William Beer of the 
Howard Memorial Library at New Orleans. Galvez is 
shown in ftdl official costume. 



XIX 

Spanish Land Grants..... 166 

Shown in their positions relative to each other and to the 

principal modern streets of Mobile. The map was 

drawn for Colonial Mobile by J. R. Peavey, Jr., under 

direction of the author. 

Ellicott Stone 169 

The stone is about three feet high, although in the 
picture it looks much higher. 
Map of the Country in Spanish Times 173 

The northern district is not shown in detail because 

West Florida never extended so far, and in later Spanish 

times was limited to the coast south of latitude 31 degrees. 

Spanish Passport 177 

Shows the beginning of the Spanish Passport among 

the archives in the Mobile Probate Court. The Spanish 

seal is at the top, and the private seal of Col. Bouligny 

is at the bottom of the original. 

Spanish Relics — — 180 

The piece of shell shown was found by R. L. Yuille 
on the Eastern Shore. It is very thick. The solid shot 
is from a house ifi Pensacola ivhich stood on the site of a 
Spanish battery. The half shot to the right is from Fort 
St. Stephen. {The gavel at the top is French, being 
made from cedar ivhich came from BienvilWs Wharf at 
the foot of Government Street.) 

Pioneer Relics. 186 

The old time hoe is from the neighborhood of St. 
Stephens. There is also shoivn a steel, used to light a 
fire by striking a flint, from the Touacha Mounds in 
Baldwin County The axe, crushed in from being used 
as a w'edge, came from the neighborhood of Fort Jackson^ 
Spanish Mobile I89 

A curious map from the papers of Louis Troost, a^^ 
old surveyor at Mobile. Observe the strange way in whi^j^ 
it indicates doors or entrances. 



XX 

American Flag Facing P. 191 

United States Flag, Early Nineteenth Century. 

Pushmataha ....- 200 

In the regimentals of which this Choctaw chief was so 
proud, given him by General Flournoy at the beginning of 
the Creek War. 

Water Front in 1823 211 

Around the Goodwin and Haire map of 1823 are 
pictures of buildings of the time, and at the top is this 
view of the tvoter front. Observe the steamboat. 

Mobile in 1823 218 

The Goodwin and Haire map is usually spoken of as 
dating from- 1824, when it ivas published, but it was 
draivn the year before. It is the earliest map of the 
zvhole city and shoius its extension back from the river 
to w'hich it had heretofore clung. Only one copy of this 
map exists. 

Garrow House, 1819 .-. 222 

Formerly on Government Street, opposite the Presby- 
terian Church, residence of Mayor S. H. Garrow. It 
had on the gutter-heads the date 1819. Tradition said 
that LaFayette was entertained there, — an honor claimed 
by several other houses. 

A Government Street Home of the Thirties 229 

Built by Rev. William- T. Hamilton in 1836 and pidled 
doivn by a subsequent oivner about 1900. The trees were 
planted by Dr. Hamilton and his sons. In early days 
it had a fence in front and the gates were locked at night. 
The walks and drives ivere edged with bricks and box 
hedge and summer houses were on both, sides of the lot. 

Map of Alabama in 1830 Facing P. 235 

This shows the gradual development of the state, the 
only obstacle to its unity being remnants of the Indian 
tribes in the east and west and a! the north. Ins' cad 



XXI 

of four Indian tribes, we notv have five American states 
near the Gulf. With the next step, the removal of 
the Indians, began the railroads. 

Bishop Michael Portier 238 

From a photograph furnished by Bishop E. P. Allen. 

Dr. J. R. BuRGETT 240 

From a photograph in the family. 

Bishop R. H. Wilmer 241 

From a photograph presented by him to Dr. Burgett. 

Railroad Money 246-247 

These two pieces of paper money ivere issued by rail- 
roads in central Alabama at the time of their construc- 
tion i)i the thirties. 

Barton Academy 253 

Shows the Academy as it was before the present wings 
were added. It was taken immediately after the Civil 
War, and gives one of the horse cars of the time. 

J. C. NoTT 257 

From a photograph given by Dr. Nott to one of his 
patients. 

A. B. Meek 260 

From the Reminiscences of William R. Smith, a warm 
friend of Judge Meek. 

Madame Le Vert . 261 

From a7i engraving in the possession of the Y. M. C. A., 
of Mobile. 

Augusta Evans Wilson 262 

Represents Mrs. Wilson in his later years and is from 
a photograph given by her to the author. 

C. C. Langdon 265 

From a photograph in the possession of Mrs. Jack F. 
Ross, Mobile. 

Theodore O'Hara ....- 266 

From a print furnished by Dr. Erwin Craighead. 



XXII 

G. A. Ketchum 268 

From an early photograph. 

Dauphin Street 272 

Shows the old buildings, and also the iron fence around 
Bienville Square. 

Battle House 273 

From a bill-head of the Battle House dated 1853, 
shortly after its construction. 

Municipal Building 275 

As it ivas before the remodelling of 1911. 

John A. Campbell... 277 

From a photograph presented by Judge Campbell to 
Peter Hamilton. 

R. H. Smith. .. 282 

From a photograph in the possession of his daughter, 
Mrs. J. B. Thornton. 

Confederate Flag Facing P. 289 

Battle Flag of the Southern Confederacy. 

John Forsyth 295 

This is part of a group in the editorial rooms of the 
Mobile Register. 
Map of Country in Confederate Times. ..Facing P. 299 

Abram J. Ryan 304 

From his Collected Works. 

Archibald Gracie 311 

From a photograph in the possession of Miss Brown, 
of Mobile. 

James Hagan 315 

From a photograph in the possessioji of his son, 
John D. Hagan. 

Confederate Cannon 310 

Brought from Fort Morgan and mounted in Duncan 
Place in Mobile bv William Butler Duncan. 



XXIII 

Raphael Semmes.' — 320 

From a photograph of the Admiral as he appeared 
about the time of the War. 

The Florida .— - 324 

As she was running through the blockaders into 
Mobile Bay. From a painting belonging to the late 
L. G. Stone, her executive officer. 
Map OF Mobile Bay IN Confederate Times .Facing 327 

Copied from an old Confederate tracing. The three 
lines of entrenchments about Mobile have been platted 
in by Mr. L. H. McNeill. 

The Tennessee '. _ 328 

Shows her profile before battle as given in Scharfs 
"Confederate States Navy." 

Confederate Relics _ 330 

Showing a McKinstry pike, a piece of a Farragut 
shell, a shrapnel from Blakely, and some copper from the 
wreck of the Kearsarge. 

Admir\l Franklin Buchanan-.. 331 

Of the Virginia and the Tennessee. 

The Tennessee After the Battle 332 

The smokestack is gone and the smoke is pouring out 
of the vessel. 

Guard House . 341 

This quaint toiver held the fire bell and clock above and 
below was the city prison. The police headquarters were 
on Conti, and the mayor^s court room upstairs near the 
corner of St. Emanuel. The ivalls were thick, in Spanish 
style. The buildings were erected in the forties. 

Thos. H. Herndon 347 

From a photograph. 

Peter Hamilton 348 

With his signature. 



XXIV 

GUSTAVITS HORTON 349 

From a photograph in the possession of the family. 

Lewis T. Woodruff __ 354 

Copied from a portrait prefixed to the City Directory 
of 1870 after the death of Colonel Woodruff caused by the 
falling of a wall at a fire. 

City Money ^ 357 

Furnished by Mayor Sclnvarz. 

Mobile Fire Dept. Insurance Co. Sign. 369 

From an iron sign of the company noiv in the pos- 
session'of the author. It is fourteen inches long. It had 
to be photographed on a larger scale than the other articles 
in order to be distinct. 

Foote's Money 370 

A bill formerly in the possession of William H. Ross, 
of Mobile. 

Bicentennial Medal 389 

Copied from one of the bronze medals struck by the city 
in 1911. The silver medal is less distinct. 



PERIOD I. 

THE SPANIARDS IN THE INDIAN COUNTRY 

1519-1670 



A UTHORITIES. 

General. P. J. Hamilton, Colonial Mobile (1897, revised 
edition 1911); Colonization of the South, (1904) (History of 
North America Series); Justin Winsor, Narrative and 
Critical History (8 volumes, 1887) ; Transactions Alabama 
Historical Societ>'; Transactions Mississippi Historical 
Society. 

Indian. Gatschet, Creek Migration Legend, (1884;) Haw- 
kins, Sketch of Creek Coz/w//'3',(l799;)American State Papers, 
Indian Relations (1832, Vols. I and H); A. J. Pickett, 
History of Alabama (1851, reprint 1900). 

Spanish, Documents. Maps and Papers at Seville, of 
which a description is given in P. T. Lanzas, Mapas, 
Pianos, etc., de Mexico y 7^/oncfa, (l900;) American State 
Papers, Public Lands (Vols. I-VI) ; White, Netu Recopilacion, 
(1839) (Vols. I and H) ; Translated Records, Mobile Probate 
Court; Original Records, Mobile Probate Court. 

Travels. Garcilaso, Florida, (1605;) True Relation of the 
Gentleman of Elvas, (1557,) (both in Spanish Explorers, 
1907); Biedma, Relation, and Ranjel, Relation, in Trail 
Maker Series, (1904;) TerniiUKCon\\)^n's,, Re cneil Flo ride; 
Collot, Atlas; Cabeza de Vaca, (in Shipp's Florida, and in 
Spanish Explorers, 1907). 

Histories. Barcia, Ensayo Cronologico (1723); W. B. 
Scaife, America, Its Geographical History (1892) ; W. Lowery 
Spanish Settlements in U. S. (1901); E. Ruidiaz, Florida 
(1893, 2 Vols.); Grace King, De Soto and his Men in the 
Land of Florida, 1808. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE COUNTRY AND THE NATIVES. 

1. The Rivers. The part of North America now occu- 
pied b\' the United States can be divided into three great 
districts. The eastern is the slope from the Apalachian 
Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, where we now find great 
states from Maine to Georgia, and the western is the country 
from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, settled much 
later. The middle region is that extending between these 
mountain ranges from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of 
Mexico, and, because drained by the Mississippi River 
and its branches, it is called the Mississippi Basin. It is 
by far the greatest region in size and in natural products. 
Strange to say the Mississippi River has no large branch 
on the east side south of the Ohio River. This is due to 
the fact that the Apalachian Mountain System extends so 
far to the southwest that the elevation of the country 
throws the drainage southwardly. In this way there are 
to be found several rivers flowing into the Gulf, from the 
Chattahoochee on the east to Pearl River on the west, 
but by far the largest river system is that formed by the 
Alabama River on the one side and the Tombigbee on the 
other. These finally come together in the Mobile River 
and make up what may be called the Alabama-Tombigbee 
Basin, which is second only to the Mississippi Basin in 
size and importance. 

2. Soil. When we speak" of the South we must take 
into account a warm climate, where ice and snow are not 
common and where winter hardly lasts two months. To 
make up, however, there is a good deal of rain, caused by 
the moist winds from the Ciulf meeting the colder winds 
from ihe north. These two elements of warmth and 



4 ■ Under Five Flags 

moisture have much to do with cHmate, but another feature 
is the soil. The mountain region in which our rivers rise 
is made up of rocks of different epochs, and, while they 
produce coal and iron, these were not known until lately. 
The heads of the Alabama and Tombigbee Valleys cut 
through this mountain country to within a few miles of the 
Tennessee River, which here makes a sweep to the south 
before emptying into the Ohio. But the main interest of 
our story will be connected with the streams which join to 
make up the Mobile River. While they flow to the south, 
it is a curious fact that the different kinds of soil through 
which they pass lie in belts parallel with the Gulf of Mexico, 
and our river system therefore cuts through different kinds 
of land. The belt of land furthest north is the Mineral 
Region of which we have spoken. The streams making 
up the Alabama and the Tombigbee Rivers pass through 
this, but on account of rocks they generally cannot be used 
for boats. This is the nature of the Tallapoosa and Coosa 
rivers which pass over falls at Tallasee and \\ etumpka 
before they unite to form the Alabama, and the same is true 
of the Black Warrior River in the west, whose principal 
falls are at Tuscaloosa. The W'arrior unites with the Tom- 
bigbee, whose upper portion is broken by sandbars rather 
than by falls. Next south of this Mineral Belt is what is 
called the Black Belt, made up of limestone and which is 
the most fertile part of the South. This sweeps in a broad 
crescent through the whole country from the mouth of the 
Ohio Ri\'er nearly to the Atlantic Ocean. The third and 
last division of soil of interest to us is what is known as 
Pine Belt, a sandy region extending from the Gulf Coast 
inward for about one hundred miles. When the oak 
forests are cut away, the Black Belt is suitable for corn and 
cotton, but the Pine Belt produces only forests, ^•aluable 
for their timber. This pine region is underlaid b\' a clay 



The Country and the Natives 







5\ 




•'t^il> 









§s' 



3s 






C3 



^ 



6 Under Five Flags 

sub-soil which retains fertilizers, and therefore it can be 
made to produce corn and vegetables in abundance. The 
Alabama-Tombigbee Basin, therefore, is made up of three 
very different kinds of country, but the rivers flow south 
through all of them and unite at the marshy delta above 
Mobile Bay, and in this way brought the different districts 
and peoples into relations with each other. The basin is 
now largely within the State of Alabama, but the sources 
of the rivers are in the states of Georgia and Mississippi. 
While it was not separated- by mountains from other parts 
of the South, the district had a unity of its own, and its 
people could develop independently of the rest of the coun- 
try in a kind of isolation. 

3. The Coast Indians. The first inhabitants or abori- 
gines were called Indians, from the notion of Columbus 
that he had reached India. It would seem as if they came 
to America from Asia and one tribe pushed the other on 
before it, som.ewhat as in the Barbarian migrations in 
Europe at the fall of the Roman Empire. Those about the 
Gulf Coast were divided into a number of tribes, having 
more or less in common. Several of the smaller tribes were 
of the Sioux race, but cut oft by later invasions from their 
brethren west of the Mississippi. This was probabh' the 
case with the Biloxi and possibly the Pascagoula, while 
the Natchez and Tensaws show greater likeness to Mexican 
races. About Mobile and Pensacola Bays the Indian popu- 
lation was not large, but the tribes of the interior came to 
the coast at the fish and oyster season in great numbers. 
There is some difficulty in learning much about the natives 
on the coast because they had decreased in number by historic 
times, and in some cases but few words of their languages 
have survived. They were much like the Indians of the 
interior and had to some extent passed into the agricultural 
state, for they raised tiie native beans and melons and quite 



The Country and the Natives 7 

generally that American staple, maize or Indian corn. 
Their patches were produced by burning the cane from the 
river bottoms, and these were often flooded. On the other 
hand although large and small game abounded, fishing and 




INDIAN RELICS NEAR MOBILE 

hunting were very uncertain in results. The men were the 
hunters and fishers and the women were the farmers. 

4. The Chickasaws. The name Muscogean is applied 
to three of the four great southern nations. It would seem 
that what were afterwards known as the Choctaws, Chicka- 
saws and Creeks were originallx' one nation, who, after 



8 Voider Ftve Flags 

reaching the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin from the north- 
west, broke into three branches. Of these the Choctaws 
and Chickasaws were the most closely allied and remained 
side by side. The Choctaws were the further south and 
extended from the Alabama River almost to the Mississippi. 
The Chickasaws were further north, in the country between 
the sources of the Yazoo and the Tombigbee Rivers. The 
Chickasaws were the fiercest of the southern Indians, and 
fighting was their normal condition. They were the small- 
est of the tribes, but the most feared. Their boundary 
with the Choctaws was about the Noxubee River, meaning 
Fighting Water, a name derived from the bloody en- 
counters in its vicinity; for their kinship increased rather 
then lessened the ferocity of the wars. 

5. The Choctaws. The Choctaws were the most num- 
erous of the southern Indians, and, like the others, divided 
into clans on the basis of descent from one mother. These 
clans bore names of animal totems or signs, representing 
their ancestors, and members of any one could not eat the 
flesh of the particular bird, fish or beast from whom they 
claimed descent. This reminds us much of ancient Egypt, 
for the clan system we find there, in Scotland and in many 
other parts of the world. Leading men of the clans met 
in a common council for discussion of public matters. The 
older men ruled in peace, while in war there was a special 
commander, and the warriors were from the younger men. 
War with the neighboring Chickasaws and Creeks was 
perhaps the normal state of afi^airs, but within the Choctaw 
nation itself there were few quarrels. In late times we 
shall find three subdivisions of the Choctaws — the South- 
eastern and Eastern about the Tombigbee, and the Western 
or Six Towns near the Mississippi. They lived in what are 
known as towns, but the word had a different meaning then. 
Their houses were generally tents, made of bark or skins 



Tlie Country and the Natives 



9 



upheld by poles, in which the Indians slept on the ground, 
covered by a skin or blanket. There was no furniture in 
our sense of the word — seldom even the box, from which 
has gradually grown the different pieces of furniture so 



• 1^ 




1 4 1 1 # # 4 * 





INDIAN RELICS, ALABAMA RIVER 

familiar in European and American homes. The houses 
were grouped around a central space reserved for meetings, 
and the number of the inhabitants of any town was not 
large. The towns were situated on or near water courses 
and were connected bv trails, which were well known to the 



10 Under Five Flags 

Indians, and in some cases were originally laid out by the 
buffalo. 

6. The Mobilians. From the earliest times we find a 
language called Mobilian, the best known of all from the 
Atlantic to the Mississippi, and indications of what the 
Spaniards called "an empire," covering the whole central 
South, and with Its capital at Maubila. The exact site of 
this town is one of the puzzles which may never be solved. 
We can only safely say that it was somewhere between the 
Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers, and probably in either 
Clarke or Marengo Counties of our day; for several authors 
give it as about one hundred and twenty miles from the 
coast. Indian towns when destroyed would leave hardly 
a trace behind. Maubila was near a lake, and the country 
abounded in palmettoes, but a lake, palmettoes and arrow 
heads can be found at many places. There is every reason 
to believe that the people were Chcctaws; the name 
Maubila itself is Choctaw, and means "paddlers." The 
few words which we ha\e of theirs seem to be Choctaw also, 
and the best plan would seem to be for us to think of Mau- 
bila as the chief town of the Choctaws east of the Tombigbee 
River and in its day having through its chief a commercial 
and political influence o^'er much of the Alabama-Tom- 
bigbee Basin. 

7. Creeks or Miiscogees. About the Coosa and the 
Tallapoosa Rivers lived an Indian Nation who on account 
of the number of watercourses in their country were to be 
known to the English as "Creeks;" but they called them- 
selves "Muscogees." From time to time they adopted 
remnants of foreign tribes, and all lived in apparent harm- 
ony. Originally they extended to the Atlantic Ocean and 
it was from them that the English acquired the coast of 
Georgia. At a later date also some of them were on the 
Chattahoochee River, where they were called the Lower 



The Country and the Natives 11 

Creeks, to distinguish them from the Upper on the Coosa 
and Tallapoosa. The Northern Creeks always had a 
capital or principal town, Coza or Cosa, on the river 
named from it, which was early celebrated, and later 
the capital was lower down at Tookabatcha. The country 
about these two sources of the Alabama is a rugged, well 
wooded district, sometimes fertile and productive in 
game, that part of the South first known to outsiders and 
the last which the Indians were to claim. The Creeks 
were perhaps more warlike than the Choctaws and were in 
constant conflict with them. In later times the boundary 
Ijetween the two nations was the winding watershed 
between the Alabama and the Tombigbee Ri\'ers; but in 
the Spanish period the boundary was probably further 
east, for Cahaba is a Choctaw word. 

8. The Cherokees. Far to the north on both sides of the 
upper Tennessee River lived the fourth of the great south- 
ern tribes, known in history as the Cherokees, who had 
probal)ly been the builders of the famous mounds on the 
Chio River. They have proved to be the Indians most 
easil\- cix'ilized, but up in their mountains they were the 
most remote from European influence and were the most 
serious obstacle to white colonization. Their true country 
was in the mountains of the present states of North Carolina, 
(ieorgia and Tennessee, now called the "Land of the Sky." 
Those en the southern slopes were known as the Lower 
Cherokees and those beyond as the Upper. It was only 
in later times that the Tennessee Valley came to be fre- 
quented by them.. Their mountain country produced gold, 
as they found out and the Spanish after them; but they 
held their lands by bravery rather than by trade. 

The Cherokees were not less brave than the Chickasaws, 
whom the\' joined on the west, and in fact all of the south- 
ern Indians were great warriors. The settled habits and 



12 



Under Five Flatus 



courage of the four great nations were so marked as to make 
their history more famous than any American Indians 
except the 'Iroquois of the North. 

9. What the Moimds Tell Us. We know something of 
the Indians from the white races who found them here, but 
this information is often unfair, for it comes from enemies. 




CHEROKEE RELICS 



We learn a great deal also from remains which the Indians 
have left. Not only do the rivers and creeks retain the 
musical names of these aborigines, but, scattered along the 
streams can still be found mounds, sometimes of great 
height, graves and other works, some almost as important 
as the famous mounds on the Ohio. On the Alabama 
River in Wilcox County are many mounds, and on the 
Tombigbee near modern Livingston are a number from 



The Counlry and the Natives 13 

which have been taken beautiful stone vases and weapons, 
besides the pottery, ornaments and human remains gener- 
ally found. The seashore is not free of shell mounds and 
other evidences of the past, and one striking work can be 
still seen in a canal connecting Bon Secours Bay with the 
Gulf of Mexico. This has since been overgrown with forest 
trees, but bears evidence of great labor by some prehistoric 
race. The use of these places is not always clear. The 
mounds may have been sometimes for defence against 
enemies, sometimes a refuge from floods, and most of them 
have been used for buri?J. 

10. Weapons, Implements and Utensils. The hrst 
things in use by man as tools must have been of wood, but 
wooden articles soon decay. Over all the world the oldest 
things which we now find are of stone, and hence it is said 
that the first period in human history was the Stone Age. 
In other parts of the world bronze was next used for such 
things, ard then iron proved the best of all; but in America 
early man had not gone so far. Doubtless at first one or 
two articles sufficed for all uses; for a stone could crack a 
nut or hit an enemy, but the Indians had reached the stage 
where they had weapons for war and implements for 
peace. The principal weapons were the bow and arrow, 
the spear and axe or tomahawk. The bows were of bent 
wood with deer sinew for the string, and the arrows were 
of cane or other light wood. The spears were also of wood, 
but the arrow and spearheads of stone have survived in 
great variety. Sometimes we find places where they were 
made, with piles of the little chips which were skillfully 
broken off until the weapon had the shape desired. Many 
tomahawks are also found, shaped like a hatchet, but with 
two grooves across the sides instead of a hole for the handle. 
The handle was split, the tomahawk inserted, and then 
tied. Sometimes the axe was driven through a sapling 



14 Under Five Flags 

and, after the wood had firmly closed in the grooves, the 
sapling was cut off so as to form a handle. Unlike man in 
the age of metals, the Indians had no swords. The great 
variety of stone used for their weapons shows that there 
was an extensive trade between different parts of the coun- 
try, for arrow heads made of stone from the Great Lakes 
are common in the South. Some of the same articles were 
used for peaceful implements, for a tomahawk would cut 
down a tree. There was nothing but a forked stick for 
plowing and no real garden tools. All the southern tribss 
had learned to make pottery, for clay was abundant. 




INDIAN RELICS, DAUPHINE ISLAND 

Pots were built up by coiling clay formed like a rope into 
the required shape, polished afterwards by hand, and then 
burned hard. Frequently fanciful lines or animals were 
scratched upon the surface, or handles affixed showing 
animal heads or tails, and a glaze was sometimes 
added which made the ware more useful and lasting. The 
pottery was of all shapes and sizes, and, while most of it 
was used to cook food, large pieces sometimes received 
the bones of the dead. There is at Philadelphia a collec- 
tion of pots, each several feet high, filled with human 
bones from our part of the country. The weapons which 



The Country and the Natives 15 

survive are much like those found in other places over the 
world — for instance, like those which have been dug up in 
England — and show that the Indians in the Sixteenth 
Century- were at the same stage of culture that the old 
Britons were in the times before Christ. They were 
fighters rather than farmers. The axe, plough and anvil 
have been the great instruments of civilization, and the 
ignorance of metals prevented their use in Am.erica. The 
Indians had no domestic animal to help them except the 
dog, and so could not increase their work beyond what their 
own hands could do. And now in their home country they 
were to meet white races which had made all the progress 
of which mankind was capable. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE BA Y OF SPIRIT U SANTO. 

1. Spain. The Indians were not only of the Stone Age, 
but their civilization itself seemed petrified. The history 
of the South was not to be that of their development; they 
were rather to be a foil for European invaders — ^a stone 
upon which these were to be sharpened. When the time 
came for this, Spain was the leading country of Europe. 
The Dark Ages passed with the Renaissance of the loth 
century, and by this time each of the countries which had 
gTOwn up on parts of the old Roman Empire had acquired 
a character of its own. Nowhere was this truer than in 
the southwestern peninsula of Europe, Spain. Its old 
Gothic races with their Roman varnish had been pushed 
back by the Moors, but, after a long duel, which was 
really the survival of the old Crusades, the two Spanish 
kingdoms of Castile and Leon became one under the flag 
bearing their two emblems of the castle and the lion. 
Afterwards when Isabella was queen her marriage with 
Ferdinand of Aragon joined all Christian Spain, and 
Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada and 
expelled the Saracens from Europe. During these cen- 
turies of warfare the Spaniards became the best soldiers 
of Europe, and, while the conflict had been marked by 
chivalry, it had also developed a spirit of cruelty. 

2. Discoveries. The neighboring country of Portugal 
had become the leading maritime nation of the day, and not 
only had her Prince Henry explored the coast of Africa, 
but her merchants were establishing posts in the East 
Indies. The acquisition of Seville made Spain a ri\al, and, 
as if showing how greatness was leaving the Mediterranean, 
it was for Spain that the Genoese Columbus discovered 



The Bay of Spiritii Santo 17 

the New World. In several voyages he explored His- 
paniola and Cuba, and, sailing up and down the Atlantic 
coast, he and his successors gradually outlined the two 
continents of North and South America. The English 
and French were to follow in their turn, but the sea which 
we know as the Gulf of Mexico was first occupied by the 
Spaniards. Ponce de Leon explored Florida,, six years 
later Cortez conquered the rich Aztec kingdom of Mexico, 
and Jamaica soon became a Spanish colony. 

3. Cuba and Mexico. Columbus supposed that he had 
reached the Asiatic islands, and maps of his followers did 
not show America as a continent. One of 1513 is supposed . 
to have been based upon a map of Columbus and it shows 
not only the West Indies, Mexico, and Florida, but a series 
of rivers and indentations along the north coast of the Gulf. 
These are no doubt guess work, but Cuba, Jamaica, and 
Mexico gradually became settled by the Spaniards, and 
the starting points for their explorations to the north and 
south. Peru was to be the richest prize, but the countries 
from Peru to Mexico were found to be not only valuable 
in themseh-es, but important as containing the roads 
between the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Spaniards were 
little more than the ruling class, bent upon finding the 
gold and silver which Hispaniola, Mexico, and Peru 
furnished in abundance, and the greed of their leaders 
increased the cruel spirit which they had inherited from 
the Moorish wars. Indians of Mexico and other 
southern countries were more advanced in the arts of peace 
than those of the upper Gulf coast, but they had lost much 
of the warlike spirit which prevailed further to the north. 
They had neither horses nor firearms, two agents which 
made the Spaniards formidable, and could oft'er but slight 
resistance. In this way the new world was fast becoming 
provinces of Spain. 



18 Under Five Flags 

f-f. Pineda'' s Voyage. While most of the adventurers 
sought the west and south, a governor of Jamaica named 
Garay determined to explore the north, and find out 
whether Florida was an island, as others reported. If so, 
there would be a passage further west and other lands to 
conquer. He selected for his admiral one Pineda, who in 
1519 explored the whole north shore of the Gulf from east to 
west. His report was somewhat vague, as was to be ex- 
pected in an unmapped country, but probably he discovered 
what we know as Mobile Bay and River. He reported to 
Garay that he had found a river of great volume and on it 
a considerable town, where he remained forty days trading 
with the natives and cleaning the hulls of the boats. On 
ascending the river he saw on its banks within six leagues 
forty Indian villages, and these would seem to be shown by 
the mounds still seen on Mobile and Tensaw Rivers. 
This is confirmed by the map which Garay next year sent 
home to Spain to illustrate Pineda's voyage. On the north 
coast of the Gulf the map gives a pear-shaped bay within 
the coast line, with a long eastern offset at the south, and 
the legend (writing) on the map gives the name "Spiritu 
Santo," the first ever given to this sheet of water. The 
map seems to have been the basis of several afterwards 
made, one of them being a Spanish plan of seven years 
later, on which by far the most prominent body of water 
emptying into the Gulf is the double Bay called "Mar 
Pequeha," which means a little sea of salt water. Flowing 
into it is the Rio Del Spiritu (River of the Spirit), emptying 
by several mouths. This map is by Ribero and can still 
be seen at Weimar, where it was brought by the great 
Emperor Charles V from Spain. 

5. Narvaez in Florida. Mexico had come to be known 
as New Spain, with claims to the north and northeast, and, 
when Florida was gradually found not to be an island, the 



The Bay of Spiriiii Santo 19 

name of Florida was likewise extended towards the north 
and northwest. One of the adventurers of both districts 
was Panfilo de Narva ez. He was given a commission from 
Spain to put Cortez out of Mexico, but found himself 
driven away by Cortez and with the loss of an eye. Foiled 
in this direction, he obtained a permission for the conquest 
of Florida, and in 1528 sailed from Cuba for his new prov- 
ince. He landed near what we call Tampa Bay and made 
his way overland to the north and west, trying upon the 
fierce natives of the peninsula the methods which the Span-, 
iards had employed with the milder races of Mexico. The 
result Avas disastrous to both sides, and finally Narvaez 
was glad to seek the coast at Apalache, near where the 
peninsula of Florida joins the mainland. He wintered 
there, lost some of his horses, and made boats to proceed 
further west; and it is this voyage which brings him within 
our territory. He coasted along Florida, landing occasion- 
ally for water, and spent some time at an island which 
may have been the one we call Dauphine. The French 
were afterwards to find near its western end a heap of 
human bones, which led them to name it Massacre Island, 
and' these they thought were the remains of some of Nar- 
vaez' party. This is hardly true, but there can be no doubt 
at least that he visited our shores and obtained provisions. 
He did not come to colonize, however, and gladly hoisted 
his sails for the west. The waters of some large stream, it 
may be the Mississippi, drove his boat far out to sea, and 
there he perished, but one boat load of his followers under 
Cabeza de Vaca landed in what we call Texas, and a few of 
them were to make a famous overland exploration to the 
west. 

6. Spanish Colonization. There were among the dif- 
ferent nations different reasons and different methods of 
colonization. Not that any one of them had a special 



20 Under Five Flags 

plan. Often then, as now, people would embark upon aa 
expedition for their private purposes and were only recog- 
nized by the heme government when it was to the advantage 
of the ruler. At the same time, in such kingdoms as Spain 
and France, the theory was that military service was due 
the king, and no one could leave the country without his 
consent. The king was to be the sharer in the profits of, 
any foreign undertaking. A cedula or other kind of a grant 
was necessary, and none of the Spanish expeditions were 
undertaken without one or without approval afterwards. 
The two great objects were the gold and silver discovered 
and the conversion of the heathen Indians. While the 
latter might be the stronger motive with the king, the 
hope of gold was the stronger with the adventurers them- 
selves. There was as 3'et no definite plan of government. 
What w^as set up was military rule by a governor and he 
would subdivide the country on similar principles. Never- 
theless, after the first invasion was over, humanity asserted 
itself, religicn enforced its claims, and the cruelty of the 
first generation changed into a fatherly rule over the natives. 
So long as tribute was paid to the military, the good padres 
were allowed to look after the civil life of the natives. It 
will be interesting to note the difi'erent ways in which the 
European races treated the Indians of America. The 
Spanish began with methods which to modern eyes seem 
cruel. Natives of Hispaniola were compelled to work in 
mines and in fields, to which they were not accustomed, and 
were crushed out of existence. But the Spaniards came to 
realize that this was wrong from every point of view, and 
after the first invasions of the continent the Indians learned 
to love their conquerors, and flourished under Spanish 
rule. For this much credit must be given to the good 
Queen Isabella and her successors and to the priests 
whom they sent out. The priests not only taught the 



The Bay of Spiritu Santo 21 

natives religion, but taught them civiHzation, and each 
CathoHc mission was surrounded by Indian famihes, who 
were not only gardeners, but also learned the different 
industries which were known in Spain. 

7. Plate Fleets. Looking at the colonies from the point 
of view of the government, the chief sign of Spanish rule 
was the gold and silver sent home as the king's share of the 
products of a country. In course of time it amounted to 
millions of dollars and was the basis of the Spanish power 
in Europe and in world affairs. It was therefore important 
not only to raise this tribute, but to protect it on its way to 
Spain. Much came by ships from the Pacific ports of 
Peru to Panama, and then by mule train overland to the 
eastern ports, whence it was taken to Spain. The ships 
sometimes sailed by Havana, sometimes stopped for more 
silver at.'Vera Cruz in Mexico. As silver (plata) was the 
particular metal shipped, these fleets came to be known as 
the Plate Fleets, and were a great temptation to other 
nations of the day. They had to be guarded by a squadron 
of armed ships called an armada. In every war Spain 
found her plate fleets attacked, and even in peace pirates 
or freebooters swooped down upon the Spanish ports in 
Europe and America. For this reason it was necessary 
for Spain to guard the entrances to the Gulf of Mexico. 
The fleet homeward bound followed the course of the Gulf 
Stream along the coast of Florida, and was protected by 
Havana on the one side and by Florida on the other. Much 
of Spanish persistence and severity are to be explained by 
the strict measures needed to keep other nations out 
of the Gulf of Mexico. Even within the Gulf the frequent 
storms and shipwrecks made it important to have refuges 
for ships, and hence it was that the north coast wasexplored 
from time to time with the view of placing colonies at 
points like the Bay of Spiritu Santo. Making Spain 



22 Under Five Flags 

supreme in America would keep her supreme in Europe, and 
to effect this the ocean between must be Spanish also. 
It was the old dream of a world empire, and as a means 
to this end the Gulf of Mexico was to be made a Spanish 
lake. This was the work of explorers and sailors during 
the sixteenth century. 



CHAPTER III. 

DE SOTO. 

1. Hernando De Soto. The most famous of the Spanish 
explorers was Hernando de Soto. He had been in the con- 
quest of Peru* and had married its conqueror's daughter, the 




DE SOTO 

Donna Isabella de Bobadilla, and became governor of 
Cuba and adelantado of the shadow\' realm of Florida, 
After visiting Cuba, he sailed from Havana in May, 1539, 
for Florida. What happened between his arrival near 
Tampa some days later with his fi\e hundred and seventy 



24 Under Five Flags 

soldiers and the arrival in Mexico in 1543 of the half who 
survived is one of the most romantic stories in history. 
There are four narratives based on eye witnesses, and in 
general they agree. When the expedition landed there were 
besides his men two hundred and twenty-three horses, and 
thirteen hogs. He is generally credited with artillery, 
which he did not have, and most historians have forgotten 
the hogs, which really controlled his speed. De Soto did 
not keep his fleet with him, but, after having it explore and 
find a harbor called Achuse towards the west, he sent the 
ships to Cuba, with instructions to return for him in 
February of the next year. 

2. The Route of De Soto. The narrators give an account 
of wearisome marches through forests, struggling in 
marshes, fording rivers, and fighting Indians, but there is 
little by which to identify the different places. When 
they crossed a river the writer does not even give an Indian 
name nor does he often know where it flows. No wonder, 
therefore, that historians have disputed down to the 
present as to the route pursued. At least we know that 
they struck inland, and, after finding an interpreter in 
Ortiz, a survivor of Narvaez' expedition, they got to 
Apalache in October. It was there that they wintered 
and sent Maldonado on his sea expedition. In the spring 
De Soto struck out northeast and crossed rivers flowing 
towards the Atlantic, and then turned northwest and passed 
the Savannah River, not far from where Augusta was to 
stand. There he robbed the dead of their pearls, and, 
pursuing his usual plan, took with him as a captive the 
woman chief, whom the Spaniards, using European titles, 
called the "queen." The Spaniards had horses, but these 
were for them to ride on, loaded as. they were with iron 
armor, and the lack of domestic animals had to be made up 
by using the natives as carriers of burdens (tamemes). 



De Soto 25 

This march brought them to the territory of the Chalaques, 
who would seem to be the Cherokees. In June, 1540, 
they entered Chiaha, situated on one of the many islands 
of the river which one writer calls the Spiritu Santo, and 
were well received. In that fertile walnut country they 
tarried three weeks. Chiaha would seem to be the Mus- 
cogee name for potato and the place was probably in 
Talladega County; for it was a different country from that 
of the Chalacjues and we know that Chiaha was after- 
wards the name of the Tallapoosa River. After a while 
they went on down this river, crossing from side to side 
and passing several towns, whose names seem to have 
survived among the later Muscogees. They found pearls 
of the mussel (Unio) in abundance and sent two soldiers 
to explore the mountainous province of Chisca, reputed 
to be rich in gold. In the middle of July they reached the 
famous town of Cosa, apparently upon the same river, and 
its chief, clad in fur, came in a litter and welcomed De 
Soto to the fruit and supplies of his rich country. Then 
they passed through a number of towns, whose names 
sound strangely modern, to Talisi, where they spent a 
week and released the captive chief of Cosa. The towns 
which now followed were probably Alibamon. The most 
important village was Humati, and in October they reached 
a different territory, that of chief Tuscaloosa. Tradition 
has placed this meeting point in what is now Montgomery 
County, and from this time we have Choctaw names. The 
chief was seated on a gallery, his house being on a mound on 
one side of the public square. He wore a kind of turban 
about his head, a mantle of feathers reached to his feet, and 
his emblem was an umbrella bearing a white cross on a 
black field. Despite this state, De Soto arrested the chief. 
At Piachi, high above a rocky creek, they came upon traces 
of Narvaez' expedition, and there crossed what we now 



26 Under Five Flags ^ 

call the Alabama River, which emptied into the Bay of 
Chuse. Perhaps the place is marked by some of the num- 
erous mounds in our Monroe and Wilcox Counties, and 
the travellers were certainly not far from Claiborne. 

3. Maiihila. After crossing the river they marched 
three days through villages, and then, in a country where 
chestnuts abounded and the pine is not mentioned, they 
arrived at the principal city of the Indians, Maubila. 
Despite the dancing, the Spaniards saw weapons secreted 
among the palm leaves of the cabins, and Tuscaloosa with- 
drew himself from custody and refused to come out. The 
Indians even began to shoot arrows and then occurred the 
most furious battle of colonial days. Some Spaniards 
were in a cabin, De Soto and others outside in the town, 
but most of them were beyond the palisades. The fighting 
was brave on both sides, but it was mainly by each man 
for himself. There was not time or opportunity for mar- 
shalling forces. At first the Spaniards were nearl>- driven 
out, and then De Soto pretended flight, and was able by 
turning back to kill many of the Indians. The rest were 
shut up in the town, which the Spaniards set on fire, but 
they were able to rescue the soldiers who had been left 
in a cabin. The result of naked bravery against armor 
and discipline could not be doubtful, and yet one hundred 
and forty-eight Spaniards were wounded and twenty-two 
killed, and, worse than this, seven horses were slain, besides 
twenty-eight injured. One man says that more than 
twenty arrows were fastened in his cotton armor. The 
Indian loss was far greater, three thousand being killed, 
including the son of Tuscaloosa and probably the chief 
himself, for he was never found. The Spaniards lost all 
their pearl treasures in the fire and also the chalice, moulds 
for making wafers, and the wine for the mass, so that, 
as they put it, they were left like Arabs, completely stripped 



De Soto 27 

of all their hard toil. The priests consulted and came to 
the conclusion that wheat flour was necessary for the 
sacrament, and that corn meal could not be used. The 
best they could do, therefore, was to have the usual prayers 
and services, but omit the consecration of the mass. This 
the soldiers called the "dry mass." 

4. The Chicaqas. Meanwhile Maldonado had reached 
the rendezvous in the Bay of Chuse, but De Soto would 
not join him, after having lost everything. He concealed 
the news, and, after four weeks recuperation, led his men 
northwest into the wilderness. They passed through 
swamps and reached a village, shortly afterwards crossed 
several rivers with Choctaw names, and finally, in the face 
of hostile Indians, passed over to the Chicagas. They 
would seem to be near Pontotoc, and there they spent the 
winter. De Soto suffered from two savage attacks of the 
Chicagas, which nearly equalled the events at Maubila. 
It required a long time to make new saddles, lances, and 
other weapons from the ash trees of the country, for which 
they set up a forge with bellows of bearskin. Later we 
find them one time at least in alliance with the Chicagas, 
for together they attacked the Saccumas, on the Yazoo 
River between the Choctaws and Chicagas. In the early 
summer the Spaniards continued their westward march. 

5. Death of De Soto. In June, 1541, they crossed the 
Rio Grande, our Mississippi, with barges at a place near 
modern Memphis. They were to wander a year longer up 
and down the Arkansas country, sometimes crossing their 
own paths, but never finding the gold of which they were 
in search. De Soto finally returned to the Rio Grande and 
there on May 21, 1542, died of fever. In order that his 
body might be protected against the Indians, it was 
buried by his companions at midnight in the Great River 
and they escaped down stream. 



CHAPTER IV. 

LATER DISCOVERERS. 

1. Giiido de las Bazares. It is passing strange how 
little impression De Soto's expedition made upon his 
time. On the many maps which we have we will find 
Cosa, generally near the Rio del Espiritu Santo, which 
empties into a two-headed bay, but there seems to be no 
guess of the importance of that other river which he named 
Rio Grande and we the Mississippi. Perhaps the fate of 
Narvaez and De Soto kept other Spaniards from exploring 
the interior. It was clear that there were no precious 
metals there, and so the Gulf coast attracted attention 
only by its harbors. In 1558, however, there was a change, 
for Velasco, one of the best viceroys of Mexico, explored 
the coast towards the north for colonization. For this 
purpose he sent out Bazares with sixty seamen and soldiers 
in a bark, galley and shallop. They proceeded northwardly 
from our Vera Cruz and Bazares discovered the islands 
protecting what we now call Mississippi Sound. In 29| 
degrees north latitude he found an island about four leagues 
from the mainland, and, passing within it, took possession 
of what he called Bas Fonde, but did not wait to establish 
a colony. This was probably Pascagoula. Ten leagues 
further east he passed another island and discovered the 
largest and most commodious bay on the coast, four or 
five fathoms deep. It abounded in fish and oysters and 
was surrounded by forests of pine, oak and cypress and 
the like, while from the interior came what appeared to be 
a great river. On the eastern shore were high red hills 
and he found Indians cultivating maize, beans, and pump- 
kins. He first called the water Filipina, but afterwards 
named it for Velasco. This would seem to be the bav 



Later Discoverers 29 

previously called Spiritu Santo by Pineda, and Bazares 
would therefore be the re-discoverer of Mobile Bay. His 
object was to select a site for a colony, and, as he had 
found a suitable place, he now returned to Mexico. 

2. The Colony of Tristan. Velasco seems to have 
acted upon the report of Bazares and in the summer of the 
next year sent out a fleet with fifteen hundred settlers and 
soldiers under Tristan de Luna. They landed at Ychuse, 
which seems to recall Maldonado's report, and is probably 
the place selected by Bazares. The story of this first 
Spanish colony is tragic. They thought more of finding 
gold than of cultivating the soil, and their commander 
sent an expedition far into the interior of the country. 
They first came to Nanipacna, possibly at Claiborne, and 
then to the well known Cosa, in whose fertile territory 
they were aided by the natives. Indeed, we get a glimpse 
of aboriginal history, for the Spaniards helped Cosa against 
the invading Napoches, who were driven across the river 
Spiritu Santo. The Spaniards finally returned to their 
settlement at Ychuse, which lasted for two years, despite 
frequent suffering from storms, hunger, and dissension. 
One time in celebrating the mass the priest prayed his 
hearers to love each other as Christ had loved them, and 
Tristan was so affected as to reconcile himself then and there 
with an officer who was his enemy. Tristan's followers 
did not wish to remain as colonists, and so upon the chance 
\isit of a fleet in 1561 they left in a body. Such was the 
end of the first Spanish colony. 

3. Pardo's Expedition^ And yet colonization was not 
at an end. Its sphere was transferred to the Atlantic 
coast, where the great leader Pedro Menendez massacred 
the Huguenots on the St. Johns River, and founded St. 
Augustine to the south and Santa Elena in what is now 
Carolina to the north. Then Menendez planned to join the 



30 Under Five Flags 

Atlantic colonies with Mexico in the west, so that Florida 
would be a real province. Accordingly he sent out Juan 
Pardo on two expeditions. The first was in 1565, when 
Pardo marched to the northM^est and from time to time 
reached places which remind us of De Soto. Instead of 
using cruelty, he would gather the chiefs together and 
persuade them to serve God and the Spanish king, and 
occasionally he built a fort and left a garrison; but news of 
movements by the French on the coast soon caused his 
return. The next year he came back and penetrated 
farther. He passed Cauchi (probably our Chattahoochee) 
and reached Tanasqui (probably our Talisi), and then he 
came to Chiaha, where he remained almost two weeks 
receiving the submission of the natives in a country which 
is highly praised in the accounts. Soon Pardo learned 
that many warriors from the Coza country were marching 
against him, and so he retraced his steps to the east. 
This hostility of the natives does not seem to have been due 
to De Soto, but to war made by one of Pardo's detach- 
ments. Pardo built forts at Chiaha, and then upon the 
Cauchi and at other places on the road to Santa Elena. 
While Menendez, therefore, did not open a road from the 
Atlantic to New Spain, he occupied the country as far 
west as Chiaha, which was said to be fifteen days march 
from Mexico. 

4. Negro Slavery. All invaders in history have made 
the conquered work for them, and America was no excep- 
tion; but the Spaniard found that the Indians made poor 
workmen, for they were used to war, not manual labor. 
On Hispaniola and Cuba they died by the thousand in the 
mines and fields, and such was their condition that the good 
Bishop Las Casas out of pity for the Indians advocated 
the introduction of Africans, who would labor in their 
stead. This was done in the sixteenth centurv and was 



Later Discoverers 31 

found to be a paying venture. The Africans were at 
first captives bought from a conquering African tribe and 
brought o\'er the ocean to the West Indies. Soon the 
custom of slavery spread to the mainland and to the pos- 
sessions of other countries. The reason for the practice 
was that sugar, cotton, tobacco and rice, which are pro- 
duced in warm climates, require large plantations and call 
for work under the hot sun, which is fatal to Europeans, 
but natural to Africans. In course of time the labor of 
the western Spanish possessions became confined to the 
negroes. The first African slaves ever in the South were 
those in the train of Narvaez, and there were some with 
all the later Spanish expeditions. 

5. The Spanish Provinces. While the first explora- 
tions had been marked by cruelty, actual colonization 
from time to time of Menendez was of a different character. 
One of the principal objects was conversion of the Indians, 
and the strong hold which the Spaniards obtained upon 
the natives shows the zeal of the padres in the vast province 
of Florida. At the same time the search for gold was not 
neglected, and the yellow and red of the Spanish flag is 
said to represent the gold and blood of Spanish history. 
Numerous old mines and shafts in the mountains of what 
we call Carolina and Georgia still show what the Spaniards 
accomplished there. This could not have been done 
without peaceful relations with the Indians, and it shows 
the result of the expeditions and garrisons. Few details 
have come down to us, but we know that the Spaniards 
were able to map out Gulf and Atlantic provinces with 
definite names. Pineda, De Soto, Bazares, Tristan and 
Pardo had not labored in \'ain, for they had led the way. 
"Panzacola" near Mobile Bay was one province, and others 
extended around the peninsula and excn up to Chesapeake 
Ba>'; but it would seem that the Alabama-Tombigbee 



32 Under Five Flags 

Basin was not included in any of the Spanish provinces, 
and the Mississippi River was forgotten. 

It was all Indian country still, but the Europeans had 
obtained a foothold from which it would be hard for the 
natives to dislodge them. It might be, indeed, that this 
was only the beginning of European influence in America. 




FRENCH FLAG 

(Eighteenth Century) 



PERIOD II. 
A FRENCH CAPITAL 
' 1699-1717 



A UTHORITIES. 

Documents. Maps in Howard Library (New Orleans) ; 
Parochial Records, Mobile; Manuscripts by Pierre Margry 
in New Orleans; Manuscripts by Magne at New Orleans; 
B. F. French, Historical Collections Louisiana, (Vols. I-V) ; 
Historical Collections Louisiana and Florida (Vols. I and 
II); Margry, Decouvertes (Vols. I-VI); Cusachs Manu- 
scripts, New Orleans; French Colonial Records in Ministry 
of Colonies at Paris, (transcripts in possession of P. J. 
Hamilton.) 

Travels. Penicaut in French Historical Collections 
and in 5th Margry, Decouvertes; B. La Harpe, Journal 
Historiqiie (1831); Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle 
France, etc. (1744); Le Page du Pratz, Histoire de la 
Louisiane; Dumont, Memoires Historiques (French 
Historical Collections); Kip's Early Jesuit Missions. 

Histories. Charles Gayarre, Louisiana (4 Vols.) ; Martin, 
Louisiana; A. Fortier, Louisiana (1904, 4 Vols.); Grace 
King, Bienville (1892); J. G. Shea, Catholic Missions 
(1854), Catholic Church in Colonial Days. 



CHAPTER V. 
OLD BILOXI. 

1. France Under Louis XIV. While Mexico and Peru 
were sending their gold to Spain, and the Spaniards were 
civilizing the Indians of Florida and making themselves 
more humane, there were growing up in Europe two 
powers which aimed to take away the Spanish leadership. 
The one was Anglo-Saxon England, whose power increased 
on the sea as her sailors learned their trade as pirates in 
the West Indies or slavers on the African coast. And there 
was France, w^hich united Teutonic energy with Latin 
culture, and waxed stronger on land as Spanish victories 
wore out the victors themselves. Spain had known no 
Reformation, while France had been rent between the 
Catholics and the Hugenots until wise monarchs and able 
ministers learned to make a civil unit out of two religious 
parlies. From the Low Countries to the northeast France 
learned many new industries, and from Italy learned the 
arts, until under Louis XIV canals and roads made France 
the leading country of Europe and her white flag with 

"golden lilies was honored everywhere. She became able 
to send out colonies early in the seventeenth century, 
although she had failed before, and Quebec, Montreal and 
Acadia soon made her a power in the north as Jamestown, 
Boston and New York had made England a power in the 
south. 

2. La Salle. As the Canadian wood rangers {Coureurs 
de Bois) discovered the Great Lakes and brought furs 
dcwn the St. LaAvrence, French influence became supreme 
among the northern Indians. Rumors came of a great 
river flowing southward and a Canadian trader and a 
Canadian priest rowed upon the waters of the Mississippi. 



36 Under Five Flags 

And a man even greater than they, Cavelier de La Salle, 
went down to its mouth, passing over the unknown spot 
where De Soto lay buried, and in 1682 on some dry spot 
near the Gulf of Mexico took possession of the whole 
Mississippi Valley for the King of France. The discov- 
erer found no Spaniards and the Indians were not hostile, 
for now, as ever after, the French, unlike the Spaniards, 
were to live in harmony and alliance with the aborigines. 
At Paris La Salle told his story, and great men of science 
and great men of the court were equally interested. There 
was not only to be a Louisiana named for the King, but a 
colony, and La Salle was sent back to establish it. But 
the Mississippi was so lictle known to the Spaniards who 
came after De Soto that it got the name of Hidden River, 
and even La Salle now missed its mouth and landed his 
colony far ofY in our Texas. Nor was this all. That 
country was unfavorable, for the wandering Indians, 
unlike the ones of settled habits to the east, were hostile 
and while seeking relief for his colonists La Salle himself 
was killed in a mutiny. What became of the colony is 
uncertain, but either Spaniards or Indians put an end tc it, 
and only the companions of La Salle escaped overland to 
Canada. There and in France glcom took the place cf che 
joyous expectation with which he had been sent out. 
And if the French had failed, on the other hand the 
British at this very time built Charleston in order to claim 
the South and its Indians. 

3. The French Missionaries. It seemed as if the natives 
were right in thinking the great river was guarded by spirits. 
The Indian religious belief was Animisn, that is to say, 
it saw a soul in everything. To them the trees, the winds, 
the rivers were all inhabited by spirits, some of whom were 
good and some of whom were evil, but the favor of all 
had to be sought by gifts of food or valuable things or by 



Old Biloxi 37 

the sufferings of the worshippers. A Great Spirit was 
supposed to preside over all, but the nature of the beHef 
was vague and the form of worship varied in" different 
places. Sometimes it was accompanied by sacrifice of 
human victims, and everywhere it was of a nature to shock 
Christians. A zeal for missions had long prevailed in 
the Catholic church, and was to show itself strongly 
in America. The crucifix was the symbol of mercy, and the 
rites of the church were to be put in place of the native 
superstitions. We have seen how each Spanish expedition 
was accompanied by Dominicans or other monks, who 
ministered to the religious needs of the soldiers, and how 
after Spanish conquest was completed the Padres softened 
the Spanish rule. Some of these missions were to grow 
into towns and all were of a settled nature. The natives 
clustered around the churches and were taught civilization 
as well as religion. None of the Spanish fathers, however, 
came further north than a few points in Texas and none 
came further west than the peninsula of Florida. The 
Catholic church was sincerely aiming at the conversion of 
the Indians and the French priests took up the work v/here 
the Spanish had left off. There was a difference of method 
in that the' French missionaries went to live among the 
Indians themselves, whether these were Hurons on their 
lake, or the Yazoos on the Mississippi. The French 
priests aimed less at taming the Indians than at converting 
their souls, and we do not find their religious outposts 
becoming the centres of civilization. Some of the religious 
orders were themselves founded for missionary work and 
special centres of mission activity grew up in Europe. 
The missionaries of St, Sulpice in Paris really founded 
Montreal and the Seminary of Quebec was the head- 
cjuarters of French missions in America. It would be 
hard to say whether the French wood rangers penetrated 



38 



Under Five Flags 



the interior earlier or went farther than the missionaries. 
The object of the priests was to benefit the Indians, the 
object of the rangers was to make money out of them, but 
both learned to love the life of the woods and ever went 
deeper into the wilds. Several of the Quebec missionaries 
were e^rly upon the Mississippi River and one of the best 
known was Davion. He raised his cross upon a rock among 



^_ /,^,,^^^^«-';i,t^^^u 




FRENCH SHIPS 

the Tunica Indians and kept his relics and altar articles 
in a hollow tree nearby. There were others like him, 
but Davion came to be as dear to the Southern Frenchman 
as Father Felician was to the Acadia ns in Longfellow's 
story of Evangeline. 

4. Iberville's Expedition. If one Canadian died it was 
not long before others were inspired to take up his task 
in colonizing the greatest valley in America. The descend- 
ants of an innkeeper of Dieppe in France had become one 



Old Biloxi 39 

of the leading families not only of Montreal but of the 
New World; for Le Moyne D 'Iberville had won so many 
victories in Hudson Bay and in the Atlantic as to attract 
attention everywhere. When peace came with England 
in 1697 both countries looked toward colonization of the 
Gulf and the French minister Maurepas selected Iberville 
for the task. He sailed from Brest in 1698 with a fleet 
made up of the Badine and Marin, accompanied by trans- 
ports. The French had already acquired from the Span- 
iards a firm footing in the W^est Indies, and Cap Francois 
in San Domingo was their chief port. .There the squadron 
was joined by the corvette Frangois, and, sailing north- 
west, in the last days of January, 1699, they found Pen- 
sacola in Spanish possession. Proceeding westwardly on 
January 31 they cast anchor off the cape which we now call 
Mobile Point. Iberville and his brother Bienville explored 
the mainland, sounded the channels, and were weather- 
bound on the island nearby. This they named Massacre 
from the heap of skulls and bones found, with the Indian 
utensils, near the western end. They afterwards explored 
the west side of Mobile Bay, which we call Mon Louis 
Island, and discovered a good harbor near Massacre 
Island. They visited and named the islands as they passed, 
and sailed on west to discover the Mississippi River, which 
La Salle had missed. There was no place in that marshy 
country suitable for settlers, and so Iberville placed on the 
Back Bay of Biloxi, just above the present railroad bridge,, 
the temporary seat of his colony. 

o. Fort Maurepas. Iberville returned to France and 
left an efiicient substitute as governor in the person of 
Sauvole. The fort, named Maurepas for the minister, 
became the centre of the French influence on the Gulf. 
Chickasaw, Choctaw, and coast chiefs came thither to 
make alliance with the French. Bienville visited them iix 



40 Under Five Flags 

return and like his brother explored the whole tributary 
district from the Mobile to the Mississippi River. The 
Spaniards of Pensacola protested, but in vain. The log 
fort and its cannon remained. Louis XIV never lowered 
the French flag when he had once set it up, unless to carry 
it farther. Just as on the Rhine he annexed by what he 
called "reunions" different provinces to France, so on the 
Gulf, Biloxi was to be a stepping-stone to Mobile. 

6. Colonial Life. Of civil life there was not much at 
Biloxi. The principal element was the military, for there 
were few families and the settlement was not intended to 
be permanent. Indeed there was little to encourage 
agriculture in the sands of Biloxi. Fertile spots could be 
found by the creeks, which the French, adapting the 
Choctaw word "bok," called "Bayous," but the soil in 
general was not responsive. No town was laid out, no 
houses built except a few for military purposes in and about 
the log fort. The civil population was hardly a score, 
while the miltary numbered several hundred. There was 
homesickness, for it took a long time for Iberville to go to 
Europe and return, and the summer brought other sickness 
too. With fevers came death and even the active and 
cultured Sauvole surrendered to the last enemy. Except 
the official reports of Iberville, Sauvole's charming journal 
was the first literary production of the South. While we 
regret his loss, he was to have an able successor in Bienville. 

7. Louisiana and America. There might be suffering 
and there might be backsets, but here w^as a French colony 
on the Gulf of Mexico, backed by Louis XIV, the greatest 
King of that day. It not only separated the Spanish 
provinces of Florida and Mexico, but it was the seaport for 
the Mississippi and the Alabama-Tombigbee Basins, now 
called Louisiana. The interval of peace with England gave 
opportunity to France for colonization and the interest of 



Old Biloxi 41 

Frenchmen in the new province was intense. Churchmen 
thought of the conversion to Christianity of the many 
Indian tribes, commercial men of the opportunity for 
bringing raw material of all kinds to France for manufac- 
ture, statesmen of the possibility of building up on the 
Mississippi a province, which, uniting through the Great 
Lakes with Canada, would make an empire not only 
worthy of Louis XIV, but one which would ultimately 
force the English colonists back into the ocean. All France 
united in the dream of gold mines and in the hope, that, by 
uniting with the Spanish colonies, the whole continent 
would come under Latin influence. 



CHAPTER VI. 

FORT LOUIS DE LA MOBILE. 

1. Exploring the Coast. French writers spread infor- 
mation among the educated classes of the day, and the 
efforts of the renegade priest Hennepin to interest England 
reacted by creating" a stronger interest in France. Biloxi, 
therefore, became the centre for exploration of the Mississip- 
pi Valley and of the whole Gulf country. The bay was 
too shallow for a permanent capital and the harbor between 
Dauphine and Pelican Islands was thought to be the 
solution of that question, while the large maize and vege- 
table crops cultivated in the lowlands of Mobile River 
offered a permanent food supply. 

In this interesting country they found several small 
tribes, such as the Tohomes and Naniabas about the junc- 
tion of the Alabama and Tombigbee, and, further down, 
the more influential Mobilians, near what we call Mt. 
Vernon Landing. The tradition was that these were a 
remnant of the people who had fled after De Soto's battle 
at Maubila, and were of the same stock with some who 
lived on the east side of the lower Alabama River. Their 
dialect was still the Southern trade jargon. 

Of special interest to us was the exploration about 
Mobile Bay and here light is thrown by the first Mobile 
writer Penicaut, "the literary ship carpenter." He does 
not tell us that Bayou La Batre was named for a battery 
which was built at that point, but calls it for a Frenchman 
lost there. Cedar Point they named Oyster Point for the 
abundant oysters; Dog and Fowl Rivers he mentions, but 
we have to guess that they were named for Indian dogs 
and for wild fowl; the Indians had no domestic fowls. 
The site of the present Mobile is not described except by 



Fort Louis De La Mobile 



43 









,,;,,.>..,i*6fciiatel 




44 Under Five Flags 

the mention of bayous above it, to which Penicaut gives 
names which were superseded later by Bayou Marmotte 
(weasel) and Bayou Chateaugue for the sailor brother of 
Bienville. Nor was this all, for all natural features of this 
country were in course of time to receive French names. 
The Spaniards were at Pensacola, but the French were 
ever better diplomats, and were displacing Spanish in- 
fluence along the coast. Iberville met protest against the 
Biloxi settlement with the argument that it would be to 
the interest of the Spanish to give up Pensacola too. 
Much was learned of the new country from priests of the 
Seminary of Quebec, who had long been stationed as 
missionaries on the lower Mississippi, and from Henri de 
Tonty, who had been with La Salle and now came from 
the rock fort on the Illinois River to see his compatriots. 
He was the most distinguished of many. The woodrangers 
from the Mississippi threatened to turn much of the trade 
of Canada southward to the Gulf. The Munchausen of 
that day, Mathieu Sagean, was sent out by the French 
court to help in explorations, but Bienville soon found 
that his knowledge was imaginary. Iberville planned a 
great re-arrangement of the Indian tribes south of the 
Great Lakes, by which he would make the French supreme 
in America, and while he lived something was done. But 
to carry out such plans a more central capital was needed. 
2. Moving. While Iberville was in Louisiana in 1701 
he made his plans for establishing the capital of the colony 
on the Mobile River, and in France they were sanctioned 
by the minister Pcntchartrain. Iberville came back in a 
squadron bearing colonists and many things with which 
to start them off, such as Spanish sheep, a stallion from 
France, and cattle, horses and s^ine taken on at San 
Domingo. He was seriously ill with an abscess in his side 
at Pensacola in December, 1701, and from there next 



Fort Louis De La Mobile 45 

month directed the abandonment of Biloxi and the transfer 
of everything to Massacre Island, for resettlement up the 
river. The Spaniards loaned him small vessels for the 
move from Biloxi, while Nicholas de La Salle, a different 
kind of man from his kinsman, came over from Pensacola. 
It amounted to a complete abandonment of Biloxi, for no 
regular garrison remained there, and everything was 
transported by rafts or boats through the Sound to the inner 
harbor about the shell mounds of Massacre Island. The 
main port, however, lay on the south side of the island, 
on the deep channel leading from the Gulf into the Bay, 
and there a port, afterwards called Dauphin, was established. 
It was to last a long time, but at present was principally 
a means to an end, for, on January 10, 1702, Bien\ille with 
his brother Serigny and others left in three boats to occupy 
Mobile, "sixteen leagues ofT on the second bluff." There 
on the rise which we now know as Twenty-Seven Mile 
Bluff the French built the first capital of Louisiana. This 
was to consist of a fort and a town, and the first thing 
they constructed was a powder magazine near the bank of 
the river. The trees were cut down to form a clearing for 
the settlement and the clay of the vicinity was burned 
in long flat bricks for building purposes. The magazine 
filled with water from constant rains, but nevertheless the 
work went on. Some distance back a well was dug. In 
the middle of the parade ground nearby they erected a 
fort and surrounded it with a moat. 

3. Laying Off the Town. The town was built north and 
west of the fort, and it was a remarkable town for those 
days. All other colonial settlements bf that time were 
surrounded by walls to protect them against the natives, 
but the town called Fort Louis de La Mobile had no fear 
of the Indians. It was built between the fort and the 
forest whence the Indians would come and stretched from 



46 



Under Five Fla^s 



a bayou on the north to beyond the fort on the south. A 
map of 1702 shows a front street along the river bank and 
two streets further west, and seven streets ran at right 
angles to them. Between the hospital and the creek at 
the one end of the town and the home of soldiers at the 
other were the houses of the different officers and settlers, 
among whom were carpenters and mechanics as well as 
military men. Canadians and voyageiirs occupied a 




FRENCH RELICS, 1702 

western block alongside one dedicated to the missionaries 
of the parish. The principal public institutions, there- 
fore, besides the fort were the hospital and the mission. 
/{. Fort Louis Completed. The new city was to suffer 
various fortunes, but for a while at least it rose superior 
to them all. A second map seems to date from about 
1708, and by then, despite the yellow fever scourge of 
1704, the city had had a remarkable growth. The hospital 
was no longer on the bayou, but in its place was a pleasure 



Fort Louis De La Mobile 47 

resort, while not far to the west were the seminary priests 
with their house, having a chimney in the middle and a 
gallery in front, and nearby was the cemetery. Corres- 
ponding in the southwest part of town was the market 
place surrounding the well, and in front on the river 
wa? the fort, now moved somewhat northwestward of its 
first location. North and south streets had increased to 
four, those running east and west to seven or eight. They 
now ha\e names, but in quite the usual fashion these names 
are those of prominent people who lived on the thorough- 
fares. We may well believe that Royal, St. Charles, Conti, 
Dauphin, St. Louis and the like were the official names. 
South of the fort there was a scjuare of land reserved for 
the king, and a larger tract further down stream belonged 
to Bienville, which, would lend some color to the com- 
plaint later made that the governor did not fail to look 
after his own interests as well as those of the king. La 
Salle had a front lot next to Iberville near the fort and the 
Jesuits were across the street. All over town were familiar 
and interesting characters, and among them should not 
be forgotten that monumental liar, Mathieu Sagean. 
The fort itself had four bastions; in the northeast floated 
the great flag of France. The fort contained, perhaps, 
more properly speaking, was made up of long one story 
houses behind the palisades and one unusua.1 feature was 
that the western side consisted entirely of a church. At 
the north end was the main entrance under a steeple 
surmounted by a weathervane, which represented the 
Gallic cock, and the other end was crowned by some lower 
ornament. The church had on the fort side some four 
windows and two doors. Not only had the fort been moved, 
but the powder magazine also, for that is now near the river 
bank at the north end of town, and adjoining the brick- 
\'ard at the intersection of the ri\er and the creek. We 



48 Under Five Flags 

do not know of any wards, but there were three well defined 
districts, grouped about the Seminary, the Fort and the 
Market, with a population all told of several hundred 
people. To the north lay a vast pine forest, while to the 
west between the tow^n and the pines was a marsh, through 
which passed a highway leading to the farms, mills and other 
industries which grew up nearby. The main thoroughfare, 
to the Indian country as well as to the sea, was Mobile 
River. French colonization had now got a firm foothold in 
America. 

5. French and English Colonists. Colonization has had 
different objects and it so happened that Spain, who was 
first in the field, chose one of only temporary value. Col- 
umbus had stumbled on America on his way to India, 
but the Spaniards found so much gold and silver in South 
America and Mexico that they were willing enough to 
leave India to be fought for by the Portugese, French and 
English. Even in North America, Spain, through De 
Soto and others, explored rather than colonized. The 
idea of developing colonies for the benefit of the colonists 
was left for our day, but that of developing products to be 
manufactured for the home market was dawning upon 
the French and English although it did not upon the 
Spaniards. Possibly that country will win in the long 
run as a colonizer which has the largest surplus population. 
England and France settled Virginia and Canada at almost 
the same time, for French Quebec in 1606 was only one year 
ahead of English Jamestown. Then followed an inter- 
esting rivalry in colonization and over a century and a half 
were to pass before the result was decided. Virginia was 
a commercial venture, Massachusetts a few years later was 
a religious experiment, while Canada was not a popular 
but a royal effort. England took her third colonial step 
in colonizing on the old French ground of Carolina, just 



Fort Louis De La Mobile 49 

when the French La Salle made his famous prise de pos- 
session at the mouth of the Mississippi River. English 
colonization was confined to the Atlantic coast, and ex- 
panded in a gradual advance as county or towrship was 
settled; the French colonization began in the occupation 




Bi-Centennial Monument at 
Old Fort Louis 

of the St. Lawrerce basin by a nobility who settled their 
lands with retainers. 

G. The Rival Capitals. The French had Quebec 
in the north, and they were now in the south to establish 
another seat of empire, and two features stand out. With 
the French there was better leadership, for Champlain 
in the north and Iberville in the south were greater names 
than the British colonizers furnished. Again, the French 



50 Under Five Flags 

penetrated farther and acquired a greater influence over 
the natives than did the EngHsh yeomen, who hugged the 
coast and stayed close together. Perhaps the national 
characteristics of brilliancy and pluck were pitted against 
each other. The British had the advantage in numbers 
and in centres; for there were when Mobile was founded 
not only Boston and Williamsburg, which had succeeded 
Plymouth and Jamestown, but conquered New Amsterdam 
and pacific Philadelphia between, and the new Charleston 
was becoming a strong centre of influence. Against those 
could be opposed by the French only Quebec and Montreal 
in the north and Mobile in the south; but they controlled 
the greatest river basins in America, were united in spirit, 
and were wielded by the greatest king of modern times. 

The rivalry was not unequal and the building of the 
southern capital was but carrying out the plan to make a 
greater New France. There might be a choice between 
their institutions, but new conditions might modify them. 
If France could spare as many people as England, 
and the colonies of both races multiplied equally, there 
would be a New England on the Atlantic, and a New France 
occupying the St. Lawrence and Mississippi Valleys. In 
the working out of this lies the import of the story of 
Louisiana and her first capital. 



CHAPTER VII. 

LIFE AT THE OLD FORT. 

1. Government. Under Louis XIV everything and 
everybody looked to the king and .it was not without 
reason that he chose the sun as his emblem. He was in 
many senses of the word a great king, for not only was his 
court magnificent, and his army the finest in Europe, but 
many of his ministers were great men. This was true of 
Colbert, whose peaceable policy of commerce and canals 
was the basis upon which the warlike policy of Louvois 
was able to act. Even the French church was subject 
to the king rather than to the Pope, and all its registers 
were marked and issued by his officers, whether in France 
or in the colonies. The old nobility, which had its foot- 
hold and power in the several provinces of France, he 
attracted to his court at Versailles, and, while they were 
nominally his agents, the real civil power in all districts 
was exercised by the intendants whom he appointed from 
the middle ranks of life. And what was true in France 
was even truer in the colonies. The governor of Louisiana 
was the royal military agent, and financial and property 
affairs were attended to by an officer called the conimis- 
saire, who took the place of the •intendant and later had the 
title. At first, the governor supervised everything, even 
I he commissaire, and this arrangement lasted during 
the time Mobile was capital. The duties of commissaire 
were performed by La Salle, although perhaps at first 
he was only garde magasin, keeper of the stores. Everyone 
was responsible to the Minister of Colonies and Marine, 
and the commissaire esteemed it his duty to act as spy 
upon the governor and report on him to this minister. 
There was constant collision and some disorder, and the 



52 



Under Five Flaps 



more so as the commissaire got the priest or cure to join 
with him. The first priest was Davion, who was a mis- 
sionary from the Mississippi River, but in 1704 the regular 
cure arrived in the person of La Vente. He began the 
registers of church affairs and to these we owe much of 
our knowledge of the times. In 1702 what is called the 
War of the Spanish Succession broke out in Europe, with 

France and Spain on the 
one side and England and 
the Empire on the other. 
Louis had allowed the navy 
created by Colbert to run 
down, and the result was 
that England was soon 
mistress of the ocean. 
Many French ships were 
captured and few, there- 
fore, could bring supplies 
and instructions to Mobile. 
Iberville was the main- 
spring of the colonial enter- 
prise, but he could not 
come or even send with any 
regularity, and in 1706, 
while planning a blow 
against the British West 
Indies, he was taken sick 
with yellow fever and died at Havana. Bienville was there- 
fore in fuller authority than he otherwise would have been, 
and whatever credit or discredit was connected with the 
administration was due to him. 

After the death of Iberville, La Salle and La Vente 
complained more freely of Bienville, although the governor 
was well defended in his own reports and by \isitors. 



I^H 






pif 


\ 


9 


1 




r^^^ 
^^p 

^^P 

^^^H 


H 


^3 




^^^^^^M. 


^K 





BIENVILLE 



Life at the Old Fort 53 

Nevertheless, two years later a new governor was sent 
out; but he died at Havana also, and so in point of fact 
Biciuille was not superseded. La Salle's place was taken 
by D'xArtaguette, who remained in authority for a long 
while. An incident of this time was his attempt to change 
the name of Mobile to Immobile, as being somewhat more 
stable. This did not succeed, but D'Artaguette did change 
the name of the island at the mouth of the Bay from Mass- 
acre to Dauphine Island. 

2. Indian Wars. Indian relations took the place of 
what we call foreign affairs. Bienville succeeded early 
in making friends with several tribes. In 1704, for instance, 
he brought the Tensaws from the other side of the Missis- 
sippi after their defeat by neighboring tribes, and settled 
them near his fort. About the same time the Apalaches 
fled to him from Florida to escape the destructive inroads 
from the British of South Carolina, and Bienville placed 
them also nearby. The same was true of what is supposed 
to be a branch of the Choctaws, although the French 
spell their names Chattos, whom Bienville settled at the 
place ever since called Choctaw Point. But relations 
with all Indians were not friendly. This was true on the 
Mississippi, where two missionaries were murdered, which 
led to severe reprisals by the French and the bringing of a 
number of Indian children as slaves to Mobile. It was 
also true nearer home, for, while the Choctaws and even 
Chickasaws were amicable, the tribes up the Alabama 
Ri\cr showed a hostile spirit. They were very likely 
influenced by the Carolina traders, for these men, generally 
Scotchmen, had heretofore sold goods from the Atlantic 
to the Mississippi and wanted to drive the Frenchmen 
out. We find war as early as 1702, the year the fort was 
built, and also two years later, when a party was sent 
to buy provisions from the Alibamons. The French were 



54 Under Five Flags 

ambushed and all killed except one, who swam the river 
and brought the news. Bienville organized an expedition 
to avenge the murder, and there was the usual black drink 
of youpon leaves, and the dance around the red posts set 
up by the river bank, and then French and Indians went 
up the river in canoes. The Mobilians notified the Aliba- 
mons and finally deserted with the Choctaws, so that 
Bienville had to come back with the soldiers. But not 
daunted he went up the river again with French alone, 
found the hostile village and destroyed it and some few 
warriors. This was only a partial success, but it prevented 
serious war for several years. The Choctaws and Chicka- 
saws themselves came to blows and the French had the 
mortification of seeing a Chickasaw, whom French soldiers 
were conducting horre, murdered by the Choctaws. Bien- 
ville himself kept out of this war. 

The colonists were very friendly with both neighbors 
and there had been for some time a little French boy 
named St. Michel among the Chickasaws to learn their 
language. 

In 1708 came the most serious Indian war of all. The 
Alibamons were again at the bottom of the hostilities, but 
with them were the Cheraquis, the Abecas, and the Cada- 
pouces. The last were probably Tallapoosas, and the 
Abecas were the northernmost Muscogee tribe. It would 
seem, therefore, that this alliance embraced the three 
principal Upper Creek tribes and even the Cherokees. 
It proved more threatening than effectual, for, as so often 
in Indian wars, the expedition abandoned its purpose 
before reaching its destination. They burned the cabins 
of the Mobile Indians and retired without attacking the 
fort. This inroad showed the great danger from the 
Indians who lay as a buffer up on the watershed between 
the French upon the Gulf and the British upon the Atlantic. 



Life at the Old Fort 55 

There was no more actual warfare for a time, but the hosti- 
lity of the Alibamons long continued. Chateaugue cap- 
tured nine of their warriors near Pensacola and brought 
them to Fort Louis, where they were tomahawked and 
thrown into the river. 

3. What the Pelican Brought. The colonists often suf- 
fered from lack of supplies when the ships did not come 
regularly, and none were more welcome than the Renommee 
-^the Renowned — which was Iberville's ship. There was a 
vessel in 1703, but the Pelican which arrived in 1704 was 
the most famous of them all. She seems to have been 
named for the ship in which Iberville won a great victory 
from the British in Hudson Bay, and, but for sickness, 
Iber\^ille would have come out himself. With the fore- 
sight which marked everything he undertook, he sent 
supplies by the Pelican, and twenty-three girls as wives 
for the colonists. They were certainly married in a short 
time with the exception of one, who tradition says was not 
pleased with the colony or with the prospective husbands. 
There is reason to believe that all were promptly married, 
however, and from them were descended many of the 
leading families of the colony. Their names occur fre- 
quently through future years in the church records as 
mothers, god-mothers and witnesses. There were besides 
two families with children, one hundred soldiers in two 
companies, and three missionaries. 

But there came also by the Pelican yellow fever, the 
first visitation, and, in proportion to the size of the town,, 
probably the most fatal. Half the crew of the vessel, 
thirty soldiers, one of the priests, several of the officers, 
and the great explorer Henri dc Tonty died in September, 
1704. In that summer, therefore, were twenty-three 
marriages and about forty deaths. The one little church 
making up the west side of the fort saw very different 



56 Under Five Flags 

ceremonies all within a short time, and among the dead 
in the little cemetery by the river side lie the victims of this 
epidemic and in their midst Tonty, one of the great men of 
America. 

Jf.. Trades, Food a?id Dive/lings. It is interesting always 
to know of a community what its people do, what they live 
on, and where they live. In this first Mobile the trades 
were to some extent military. The names of officers are 
often mentioned, as captains, sergeants, cannoneers, 
ensigns, and cadets. We have the trades of gunsmith, 
tool-sharpener, storekeeper, locksmith, pilot, and tradesmen, 
carpenters and cabinet makers. Hunters and fishermen 
there were in abundance, for almost all hunted and fished; 
but the colony was yet military. 

The French in the time of Louis XIV were accustomed 
to good eating and one of the hardships of colonial life, 
especially from the woman's point of view, was the frequent 
lack of French food. Maize was the Indian staple, cooked 
whole as hominy, or ground into meal, and for vegetables 
there were peas, beans, and melons, besides strawberries, 
pecans, walnuts, and other nuts and fruits, black grapes, 
scuppernongs, peaches in their season, but pears, oranges 
and even figs were of a somewhat later day. The great 
national dish of France was soup, and it seems that this 
was equally true in Mobile. Gumbo file, made of ground 
sassafras leaves by the Indians, goes back to colonial 
times, and of course oysters and fish were known from the 
first. Flesh was easily cbLained, for bear and deer abound- 
ed and were familiar dishes, as were chickens, turkeys, and 
eggs. Coden on the coast is but an improper way of 
spelling Coq d'hide (turkey gobbler.) 

The streets of thelittle town were narrow, not being over 
thirty feet wide, and the lots about seventy-five feet wide by 
three times that in depth. There was no stone near Mobile 



Life at the Old Fort 57 

and l^rick was not common at first, so that the usual way of 
building a house was to drive cedar pilings into the ground 
and fill up between with morl ar. The roof sloped to the front 
and to the rear, projecting over somewhat so as to form a 
covering. The floor timbers also came out in front, and made 
what was called a gallery, — a term which came to Mobile 
from Canada and has remained as marking one of the 
French institutions. 

J. The First Directory. The French colonist in Canada 
would call himself a habitant, and the French brought this 
term to Louisiana. The word grew to have a definite 
meaning and was long preserved. Gradually, however, 
another word came in which superseded it,^ — the name 
Creole, probably introduced from 1 h e French West 
Indies. It really means native and could probably be 
applied even to vegetables and animals. It gradually 
became the real name of inhabitants in Mobile and Louis- 
iana who sprang from persons born in France. In 
course of time, as we shall see, the expression First Creole 
became quite a mark of honor, being applied to the oldest 
nati\e. The first Creole in fact was Jean Frangois, the 
son of Jean Le Camp, born and baptized October 4, 1704. 
We can easily imagine that his birth was an ev^ent which 
broke some of the gloom caused by the epidemic of the 
preceding month. 

The term Creole should not be limited to those of negro 
extraction, but is broad enough to include mulattoes of 
French origin born in Louisiana. 1 1 is not quit e certain when 
the first negroes came. They were slaves and very likely 
came from San Domingo, where negro slavery had been 
copied from the Spanish. Possibly the first mentioned 
was the little seven year old Jean Baptiste, who belonged 
to Bienville in 1707, and there were a number of others 
at that time. Probably the first negro birth was October 



58 Under Five Flags 

26, 1707, when Anthoine was born of a negro woman 
belonging to Bienville and a man belonging to Chateaugue. 
Among the odd names were those of two negroes — Good 
Times and Spanish Wine. Mulattoes were somewhat 
rare, but we hear of more of them later. A cross between 
the French and Indian was called Mestif, but these were 
even rarer. There were many Mestif s from the marriages 
of woodrangers with Indian women, but they did not get 
into the church registers. The woodrangers became more 
Indian than the women became French, and far a while 
the church frowned on such unions. 

From the maps and church registers a directory cf the 
town could be compiled; for the second map gives the names 
of lot-owners. The town could be divided into three 
districts — one to the north, extending from the river to 
the cemetery, the second being that about Place Royale, 
as it was called, extending westwardly to the woods; 
while the third would be that around the well and extending 
from there to the river. In the first district there were a 
number of well known residents, but few officials except 
the Seminary priests to the west and the Jesuits, who 
faced the river. In the second facing or near the fort 
were La Salle, Iberville, Boisbrillant, Girard the pilot, and 
others. The market district was less populous. St. 
Denis and Juchero faced the square, but the population 
was mainly of private citizens. 

The streets were called for che prominent residents 
upon them, and in this way their names changed every 
block or two, quite as in Paris. The three running west 
from the Place Royale were called Serigny, Boisbrillant 
and Iberville. One further south was named for Bien- 
ville, and one further north for La Salle. Those running 
north and south were also called for well known citizens, 
but two of them had also the names of St. Francois and 



Life at the Old Fort 



59 



St. Joseph, and the remaining one running from the market 
place was called for the Seminary which faced it. There 
was a wide space along the river bluff to which the maps 
affix no name; but there can be little doubt, that, being 
really a continuation of the Place Roynle, it was called 
Royal Street, and was the predecessor of the Royal Street 




CREOLE HOUSES 



of later Mobile, x^ll told, soldiers and habitans, it may 
well be that the town of Fort Louis de la Mobile had a 
population of about five hundred people. 

6. An OverfiOiv. There was often trouble from lack of 
supplies and it was necessary several times to send some 
of the colonists to stay with the friendly Indians. One 
party went across the Bay to Fish River, and Penicaut 
gives a charming account of how another lived with the 
Indians on the coast. This was partly for policy, as the 
war in Europe had cut oft' the supplies which Bienville 
used as presents to the Indian.s, but it was partly also 
from necessitv. To other troubles was now added over- 



60 U?ider Five Flags 

flow of the river. This could hardly have been anticipated, 
and yet every now and then the same thing occurs at this 
point. Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff is never completely 
submerged, but sometimes the river rose sufficiently to 
drown out corn of the friendly Indians on the bottoms, 
and in March, 1711, came a flood which put the town 
itself under water for some days. The district about the 
fort was not much disturbed, although for a little while 
water was even in the fort. In the lower quarters the 
houses were flooded even up to the comb of the roof, and it 
lasted for about a month, to the distress of everyone. 

As Bienville, Grondel, and the cure stood at rhe front 
of the fort and looked out, they saw only desolation. 
The river was like a yellow sea. It is true that the trees 
were there, even on the low islands in front of them; but 
they were submerged up to their forks or higher, and only 
the fort and some houses in the uppei; parts of town 
were out of water. And they now learned, that, although 
this flood was unusual, such high water had been known 
before. What was to be done? 



CHAPTER VIII. 

MOBILE. 

1 Builditig Again. For a month the flcod continued. 
The people were huddled together in the fort and in the few 
houses which were not overflowed, or were scattered on 
the highlands, miles inland. There was difficulty in pro- 
\-iding food and lodgings, but the more serious question 
was a permanent location for the colony. At the mouth 
of the river the delta was so wide, that, although the water 
overflowed the marsh islands, it did not reach the top 
of a plain which ran along the west bank, and many 
united in asking that the town be moved to this site. 
Bienville had put some fugitive Choctaws in the open 
pine forests there, and the point where the Bay joined 
the river has ever since been called Choctaw Point; but 
he pursuadcd them to move around to Dog River, and, 
with the commissaire, agreed to the request of the people. 
The old fort was now half rotten, and they could rebuild 
on. the new site as readily as on the old, and moreover the 
new location would bring the capital closer to the port 
at Dauphine island, and still remain in touch with the 
Indians in the interior. Major Paillou was placed in charge 
and soon had an open space cleared on the river bank 
between Choctaw Point and Bayou Marmotte at a place 
where the ri\er makes a turn to the southwest. Here as 
fort would command up and down stream as at the old 
site, and here their New Fort Louis, as it was called, 
was l)uilt, of cedar palisades. As well as can be ascertained, 
the point where the beginning was made was that now 
marked by the Bicentennial tablet on the present City 
Hall. The west side of the fort ran about on the line of 
Royal Street from C^hurch to Eslava, for the nortii line 



62 Under Five Flags 

of the fort was near our Church Street. The fort was 
square, but had a bastion projecting at each corner. Of 
these the eastern extended almost to modem Commerce 
Street, and in the one upstream was placed a bell for church 
and other signals, while the one downstream held the 
great square flag of gold lilies upon a white field. The 
western bastions extended almost to St. Emanuel Street, 
and in one was the powder magazine and in the other the 
prison. About the fort was an esplanade, as up the river, 
extending several hundred feet in each direction, except 
that the marshy river bank ran close before the fort and 
all along in front of the town. A cedar wharf was built 
above the fort, beginning a little east of the intersection 
of our Government and Royal, and there the cannon and 
goods of the old fort were landed from rafts and boats. 
The river bank was called a quay, and at high tide the 
water came up almost to the front street, so thai at least 
at that time there was ample depth for the shipping of 
the day. The fort was built first, probably in May, 1711. 
When the floods subsided many of the habitans decided to 
spend the summer in the old town, but then they moved 
down, their heavier goods coming on rafts, and the people 
and household effects in canoes and pirogues. Before they 
all came the town had been laid off by Paillou, four blocks 
north of the fort and four blocks south of it, all extending 
two blocks from the river, except that, as the fort projected 
somewhat into the town, the square west of it extended 
farther into the piney woods. There were about thirty 
other squares marked out through the forest, but for the 
present they were not needed. Gradually the old town 
and Old Fort Louis were deserted, and the new town and 
New Fort Louis occupied. The old place had been known 
as Mobile, and the new was to take that name and hold 
it forever, the only Mobile in the world. 



Mobile. 



63 




64 Under Five Flags 

2. The New Town. In the new fort were quarters for 
the guard, but the garrivson who were not on duty Hved in 
bark huts or more substantial houses along the western 
margin of the town, particularly in the blocks from our 
Government Street down to Monroe. The citizens lived 
in the town and were arranged much as they had been up 
the river. The blocks were as they are now, with the 
exception that St. Michael Street is about 100 feet further 
south than the north boundary of the old French city and 
that south of the fort the French blocks were about 300 
feet long. At present they are much longer: We 
have a map of Mobile in 1711, preserved in the colonial 
offices at Paris, but it does not give the names of any 
streets. We can rely upon the names now existing, for 
nobody would give French names except in French times; 
but we do not know them except Royal, Conti, Dauphin, 
St. Charles and possibly St. Louis and St. Anthony. The 
origin of those we do know is full of interest. St. Charles 
was an old patron saint among the French, as were St. 
Anthony and St. Louis, and were brought from Canada. 
Royal Street was so named from the esplanade around the 
fort, which we know was called Place Royale up the river, 
and Dauphin was named for the heir apparent of the 
French throne, just as Dauphine Island was for his wife. 
The island was named earlier, but the Dauphin of 1711 
was the grandson of Louis XIV whose sad death two years 
later convulsed the country. Conti was a great family 
akin to royalty and also to the famous general called the 
Grand Conde, dating from a little before this era. War 
had at this time almost cut Mobile off from the home 
country, and when Bienville gave these names he was still 
trying to reproduce in America a little Paris. The streets 
were 36 feet wide. The lots were 75 feet front and 150 
deep, and generally faced east and west, for the north and 



Mobile 65 

south streets were those more in demand. The time was 
to come when Conti and Dauphin were to be important 
and when extended westwardly through the pine forest 
many lots were to face on them, but at the beginning 
this was not true. The houses were of cedar and pine 
upon piUng or a limestone brought from up the river. The 
dwellings were 18 to 25 feet high and some higher, made 
of a plaster of sand and oyster shell lime, and we know of 
at least one two-story house. The hospital was at the 
southeast comer of Dauphin and Conception Streets, the 
cemetery immediately west of the fort, about the second 
block south of the hospital. St. Denis lived across the 
street from present Christ Church and it so happens that 
his name and Bienville's are the only two that are also 
on the map of the city up the river. Bienville lived next 
south of the fort, where, as up the river, he had a whole 
block to himself. Indeed south of the fort were a number 
of notables, such as Mandeville, for whom the Mandeville 
Tract was named, and Paillou, the celebrated engineer, 
who laid off Mobile and afterwards Natchez and Fort 
Toulouse. 

3. A Question of Clothes. The map of the new town 
does not give us names of any residents except the officers. 
It omits the habitans just as it omits the names of the 
streets on which they live. Nevertheless the old names 
recur on the church register. In France the punctilious 
Duke of St. Simon was now raising the great Hat Question, 
that is, whether the president of the French court called 
the Parlem.ent should take off his hat when the Dukes of 
France attended as members? There was also a Hat 
Question in Louisiana, where ships arrived very seldom. 
The ladies made up for hats by the use of feathers, ribbons, 
and, it must be confessed, by enormous rats also; for the 
coiffures of that day were among the most marvellous 



66 Under Five Flags 

inventions of history. Of course, Versailles fashions were 
not quite reproduced in Louisiana, but Mobile was a piece 
of France, and as such followed as nearly as possible the 
French fashions. The dependence of the official class — 
and they made up a large part of the Mobile population — 
upon Versailles was something which has not been often 
paralleled, and, if Marlborough could dispute the military 
supremacy cf France, at least no one from the time of Louis 
XIV disputed the millinery supremacy of Paris. We do 
not know that the Mobilians imitated the extravagance 
of their French sisters, but the pictures which survive of 
headdresses imitating ships might well have been designed 
in Mobile; for longing for a ship from France was the only 
thing in which all agreed. Of armor we know somelhing, 
for the Canadian portraits of both Iberville and Bienville 
represent them in breastplates, but it was seldom used. 
Of Indian dress we know more; but we are not told a great 
deal about the feminine costume of the day. Bienville 
was unmarried and the other officials seldom discussed such 
matters. The robes and skirts of the ladies receive occa- 
sional mention, and we may well imagine that some of 
these assumed the great balloon shape so common in 
France. A flowing drapery is spoken of and possibly we 
have in it som.e reminder of the pleat which the painter 
Watteau was making fashionable. When, we come to the 
men we know something, but our knowledge is mainly 
negative, for there is constani complaint that they did not 
have enough clothes. Bienville every now and then 
acknowledged the arrival of coats and shirts for the men, 
but never mentions underclothes, says that seeks have 
not coire and, as for hat, it is seldom named. The Indians 
wore breeches, and this was true of the hahitans. There 
was occasionally very severe weather at Mobile in winter, 
but this was easily m.et by the skins and furs which came 



Mobile 67 

for export to France. There was not much trouble about 
shoes, for tanneries were set up in the colony, and in this 
respect the people were independent of France. The 
officers were at Mobile for short times and did not always 
bring their families with them until 1712, when the new 
governor brought his large family — several of them young 
ladies — ard from that time there was a kird of court at 
Mobile, where Paris costumes were usual. But that was 
not yet. The great Hat Question of France, then, related 
to whether the nobles or the lawyers should first take off 
their hats on entering court. In Mobile, the great Hat 
Question in 1711 was how to get any hats at all. 

4. Industries. The notion which prevailed then and 
for a long time afterwards was that a colony was meant 
to be for the benefit of the home country. So long as most 
of the people came from France and expected after making 
some money to return to France, this would find no objec- 
tion. Later when the hahitans had become Creoles, 
altached to Louisiana even more than to France, there 
might be a different point of view. The English govern- 
ment was active in preveuLing the erection of manufactories 
in their colonies, but the French had no such trouble. 
The absolute government of Louis XIV made everyone 
dependent on the court a1 home and every colony dependent 
upon France, and many articles were sent from there. 
As 10 material, cotton was becoming m.ore common, its 
chief place of production being now in Mexico and other 
southerr. countries, but wool was still the principal material 
for clothing. It was grown mainly in England, and 
weaving it made Flanders the manufacturing centre of 
the world. Taffeta is mentioned, but the principal goods 
brought to America were Limbourg, Mazamet and Rouen, 
largely used in Indian trade. Every ship l)rought a con- 
signment of these materials. It would have been well if 



68 Under Five Flags 

the French government had encouraged the manufacture 
of clothes and other articles in Louisiana, but the factories 
of France were not flourishing and desired every market 
possible. The expulsion of the Huguenots had affected 
every industry, particularly in south France, and, not 
only so, but the exiles carried their knowledge and skill to 
Holland, Germany and England, to build up rivals in trade. 
This and the war were the reasons the supplies from France 
were scarce. The productive industries are those which 
would naturally prevail in a new country. Attention would 
be turned to sending home raw materials for manufacture. 
Thus many skins came down the rivers to Mobile for export , 
and in winter furs also, but they do not keep in a warm 
clim.ate, and, while Canada was alarmed lest her beaver 
trade be turned southward, the fear proved groundless in 
the long run. There was a good deal done in the way of 
forestry and lumbering. On Iberville's first visit to Mobile 
River he cut a large mast for his vessel and all the governors 
encouraged the establishment of saw mills. These used 
long straight saws, which worked up and down. The mod- 
err circular saw had not yet been invented. 

5. The Cures. The religious wars in France had resulted 
in a truce between the Catholics and Huguenots, which 
lasted to the reign of Louis XIV. Some of the Huguenots 
wished to settle in Louisiana, but this was denied. Louis 
had made one centralized government in France and there 
was to be but one church in France, and by insisting on 
what was called the Gallican Liberties, this church al- 
though Catholic was controlled by the King. Canada 
being older, its bishop St. Vallier was bishop also of Louis- 
iana and ruled through deputies who were called Vicars- 
General. This duty was entrusted to the Seminary of 
Quebec, which had a branch seminary at Fort Louis on 
Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff. The Jesuits were active in 



Alobile 69 

Canada and on the Mississippi, but they did not furnish the 
priests for the Gulf Coast. We find Jesuits at Mobile, 
but not as pastors. The first priest acting at Fort Louis 
was Father Davion. The first entry in the church records 
was in 1704, wher he baptized a little Apalache girl, but 
Davion's service was temporary, and the first regular 
cure was La Vente, a missionary from the Seminary of 
Quebec, who received a salary of about two hundred 
dollars of our money. The induction of La Vente is des- 
cribed on a page prefixed to the Mobile Baptismal Register 
under date of September 28, 1704. It tells how Davion 
placed him in possession of the church by ertering ihe 
building, sprinkling holy water, kissing the altar, touching 
the mass book, viewing the sacrament, and ringing the 
bells. This entry Davion certifies that no one opposed, 
and the quaint old document is witnessed by Bienville, 
Boisbriant and La Salle. The titles of the clergymen differ; 
sometimes it is priest, sometimes apostolic missionary, 
sometimes cure, but they performed the same religious 
duties so far as the colonists were concerned, whether at the 
Old Fort or the New. As showing the zealof the French, we 
are told of one wealthy young priest who sent out workmen 
at his own expense to build the rectory and the chapel at 
the Old Fort and would have come himself, but for being 
kept back by an uncle through court proceedings. This 
rectory was built on the left of the Old Fort, and was 
very commodious. La Vente opposed Bienville's policies, 
and before the change of site was succeeded by LeMaire. 
There is no intimation of the removal of the colony in the 
records, for it was the same parish afterwards as before, 
and only incidentally a year afterwards New Fort Louis 
is named. The priests baptized the children and slaves, 
performed the marriage ceremonies and buried the dead, 
although the only records for the first twenty years were 



70 Under Five Flags 

those of baptisms. The priests were not all well educated, 
but their er tries are in general clear and are invaluable. 

6. The First Law Book. Every country is governed by 
law. In some cases the laws are in books or codes, but in 
all cases the first laws are customs, whose origin can not be 
traced. So it was in France. The country was ruled by 
one king, but it had been made up of different kingdoms or 
districts gradually annexed by the rulers at Paris. Each 
of these districts had its own system of law, in the 
shape of customs, and having that name, "coiUume," 
in French. These had been reduced to writing by the time 
of Louis XIV, and he was trying to make Coutume de Paris 
superior to all others. Even he found this difficult, but he 
was able to make this book effective in his colonies. One 
leather bound copy now in Mobile was printed in 1G64 
at the palace in old Paris — a quarto, with the law in large 
letters, and notes in small type of additions made by the 
king and decisions of courts and lawyers. These customs 
were the law for Mobile, but many of them could not be 
applied, for they dated back even to the time of the Franks 
as modified by the civil law of Rome. This big book 
does not concern itself with politics or criminal law, for 
the king's officials looked after these things. The Coutume 
was concerned with such subjects as family relations and 
property. As to land, it has much to say about the lord 
or seigneur, and the rights and duties of his tenants, as to 
crops, dues and the like. The right any one has to the land 
he uses shows the kind of civilization of his country,. and 
what is called the feudal system still prevailed in France 
at this time, and was, with the Coutume de Paris, trans- 
ferred to Canada; but it is remarkable that this seigneur 
or lordship system did not exist in Louisiana. Ownership 
of land was much more free, amounting almost to what 
in our law is called fee simple. The reason for this change 



Mobile 



71 



LE DROICT 



FRANCOI 

ET COVSTV 



de la Prciioftc & ViccpTitc de Paris. 

or IL EST FJIT RAPPORT D I' -^- T ROMJIK, 

£5" OrdonnaHces de nos Rois : des Article • ■ '.rtiatliers 

dcs autresCoufinTntsdeceRoyaume ^ 6 '■ ■■.■-■i-s anfLniKes, 

avec les arrests donnez en 

iiitcrprctatioa Jici.l!t.i, 

Var Miijire Iean Tr onion, <i/ldH(iCii[ en Parlcmmt , ScigKcur 
lit C'liMmomd U Villc, ^~ Ju Prtfiay. 

QJ/ A T R I E S M E EDITION. ' 

Reucu'e , corrigc'e, & augmentc'e rfc plus d'vn tiers par le nicfinc Aiithcur 
auaat ia mort. 




A PARIS, 

Chez GViLLAVME DE L V YNE, Libra-.rc-liuJ, suP.ilai 

an bout dc la Salic clesMcrcicrs, a la lullux. 

t T 

Chez IEAN GVlNARDlchls, en la grandc Salic du Palais, 

a rimagc S. I'.an. ' 



M. DC. L X 1 V 



V 



COUTUME DE PARIS 



72 Under Five Flags 

was that the French colonists on the Gulf were to compete 
with the British colonists on the Atlantic, and, as these 
owned their land, the people of Louisiana must be on an 
equality with them. There were later some seigneur ies 
on the Mississippi, but even the influence of Iberville 
was unable to establish them in his own favor at Mobile. 
There are sixteen titles or divisions in the book and several 
relate to the rights of the citizens or bourgeois. Mobile 
in the records is sometimes called city {ville) and its 
inhabitants called citizens {bourgeois), so that the dif- 
ferent city rights which prevailed in Paris were very likely 
enforced in the little French city of Mobile, whether on 
the old or new site. Perhaps the longest division of the 
Coutume covers what we would call the administration of 
estates of deceased persons. All the divisions are full, 
even if somewhat quaint, and relate in one way or another 
to almost all the civil rights and duties that we have to-day. 
The form of law was different, but the people had in this 
book laws covering the conditions of that time as fully 
as a modern code does present conditions. 

7. Famines. The first census for Fort Louis de la 
Mobile gives for the year 1703 a total population of one 
hundred thirty persons, and the next year, after the arrival 
of the Pelican, we find one hundred and eighty men bearing 
arms. Four years later there had been little change, as 
there were one hundred and twenty-two soldiers, one 
hundred and fifty-seven colonists, twenty-eight women and 
twenty-five children, and even two years after the removal 
the increase had been only to four hundred all told. This 
is not a good showing. The nearest British colony was 
Charleston, which long before this had a population of 
over five thousand people, but the circumstances of the 
two colonies were very different; for the French were 
hemmed in at home, while the English were masters of 



Mobile 73 

the ocean. The French at Mobile were more dependent 
upon supplies from France at the very time they were 
less able to command them. The land about the Old 
Fort was better than at Biloxi, but nevertheless was not 
fertile. Attention was given more to the Indian trade 
than farming, but this was not to be wondered at, for 
agriculture was at a low ebb in France itself. The Dutch 
were the gardeners of Europe and war prevented the knowl- 
edge which they had gained from spreading widely. More- 
over, it required several years of experiment before the 
French could find out what plants were suited ^o the New 
World, and in the meantime they depended upon buying 
corn from the Indians when supplies did not come from 
France. Of meat and fish there was enough, but, while 
this furnishes the most condensed food for human beings, 
it does not furnish everything that is needed, and, being 
secured by hunting and fishing, it was irregular. It was 
necessary sometimes to send soldiers or some of the unmar- 
ried colonists away from town to live in the woods with 
the Indians. One famous instance was just before the 
arri\'al in 1708 of the warship Eagle, which escorted a 
vessel with supplies. A supply ship did not arrive every 
year, although that was the plan, and even when it did, 
supplies ran low before the next would come. The result 
was often great distress between the arrival of supply 
ships. And yet while this was true at the Old Fort, it was 
not to be true at the New Fort. Famines marked the 
beginning of the settlement, but they were confined to 
that time. After they got used to the new surroundings, 
the French were as diligent as could be wished. Instead 
of being scattered among the natives to fish and hunt, the 
Creoles gradually spread about the Bay and tributary 
waters to work and live. Their little white houses, of 
framework filled in with mortar, and whitewashed with 



74 Under Five Flags 

shell lime, were to be found on many of the tree-shaded 
bluffs in the Mobile County, and behind the houses were 
the little gardens in which peas, beans, corn and other 
vegetables flourished, while nearby were peaches and native 
fruits. Our story is not at first of the building of a great 
city, but at least from 1711 it is the story of the steady 
growth of a fort and town as the centre of an industrious 
population. 



CHAPTER IX. 
UNDER A MERCHANT PRINCE. 

1. France and England. The time of Louis XIV^ was 
marked by great success in the first half and great reverses 
in the second half of his reign. During the first period 
his minister Colbert built up France in all peaceful ans, 
and after his death the king was influenced by ministers 
who urged him inl o wars for increase of territory. England 
had been the enemy of France for centuries, sending 
armies to the Continent to attack her and also gradually 
winning the mastery of the sea. All the work of Colbert 
was now undone. Roads and canals were neglected, and 
the country nobility oppressed, and the farmers either 
placed in the army or crushed by taxes. On the ocean 
it was even worse. Colbert had built up a great navy and 
France had produced some seamen, but after Colbert's 
death the king neglected the navy for the army. Iberville 
was dead and ha.d no successors. No wonder, therefore, 
that France could send little in the way of supi^lies to 
Mobile, and it had a bright side in that it made Bienville 
and his colonists more self-reliant. It probably drove 
them to agriculture, and the story of agriculture is better 
for Louisiana than for France in the years to come. 

2. Crozafs Charier. When peace was in sight, the 
king determined that he could not conlinue the expense of 
building up Louisiana. He returned to the old plan of 
granting out a colony to others, although in a somewhat 
dififerent shape, for it was not now a plan to establish a 
colony, but to develop one. It had been suggested 
before, but now a man came forw^ard who thought he 
could use Louisiana tor his own gain. It was Antoine 
Crozat, almost the only merchant who had been successful 



76 Under Five Flags 

during these times of war. He had made a fortune in the 
trade to the East Indies and in 1712 was granted a charter 
or concession by which he hoped to make money by develop- 
ing Louisiana and by trading with the Spaniards near at 
hand. His success had made him a marquis and he now 
leased the country for fifteen years. The total population 
after eleven years of royal government was four hundred, 
including twenty negroes, and under his contract he was 
to bring over colonists and slaves. Crozat was to be 
represented in America by the governor and by officers 
called directors, and was to look after the civil life of the 
colony. The king still retained the military oversight 
and was to keep up the fort and maintain what soldiers 
were needed. 

3. Governor Cadillac. In the year 1713 a frigate arrived 
at the port on Dauphine Island and fired the usual salutes; 
for she brought news of peace and of a change of government 
which was not wanted. Bienville did not remain governor. 
His endeavors had been to build up agriculture rather than 
commerce, and this did not suit the wider plans of Crozat. 
So Bienville was succeeded by one who was deemed a more 
successful officer. This was Cadillac, who had founded 
Detroit up in the country of fur trade about the same 
time that Mobile had been established, and had distinguish- 
ed himself as its governor. With Cadillac came his wife, 
sons and daughters, as well as twenty-five young ladies 
from Brittany, who were soon married. Bienville was 
a bachelor and lived in a small house with large grounds 
south of the fort, occupying most of the block between 
Royal and St. Emanuel south of Monroe Stieet. His 
brother, Chateaugue, lived north of the fort at what is 
now the northwest corner of Royal and Conti Streets, 
and there had a two-story dwelling, regarded as the finest 
house in town. As Chateaugue was a sailor and out of the 



Under A Merchant Prince 77 

city much of the time, Cadillac had little difficulty in 
taking possession of his house, and when complaint was made 
to the home government, it was without effect. Cadillac 
was a silent partner with Crozat, and the king was without 
power in the matter. Cadillac had always been much 
esteemed at Detroit, but at Mobile he seemed to be out 
of his element. The fur trade, to which he was used, did 
not flourish in so warm a climate, and the Spaniards 
maintained their old policy of keeping out all foreigners 
from trade with their colonies. There always was some 
commerce between French Mobile and Spanish Pensacola, 
for the two places had need of each other. The Pensacola 
district was not fertile at all and the Spaniards were less 
interested in farming than the French. So that, if Mobile 
had some famines, Pensacola had even more and was 
often dependent upon Mobile for supplies. What is now 
called Spanish River seems to have been named from the 
Spanish trade, which brought gold and silver to Louisiana; 
for the Spaniards continued to get much of the precious 
metals from Mexico and Peru and were always well sup- 
plied with what they called "hard money," while the French 
colonists, in consequence of the wars in Europe, had very 
little. But this trade with Pensacola was not all that 
Crozat desired. 

4. Expansion of the Colony. The colony had now attained 
a settled condition, and was expanding in different direc- 
tions. It was destined to come in competition with the 
British colonies on the Atlantic, and it is interesting to 
study the difference in the methods of growth. The 
French were the more adventurous and their wood rangers 
{coureurs de hois) ran over much of the continent while 
the British were clinging to the bays and lower rivers of 
the coast; but the British colonies were more compact 
and when they did grow it was a steadier growth than that 



78 Under Five Flags 

of the French. The French mingled more with the Indians 
and had more influence over them while the British treated 
them as enemies, and, far from mixing, endeavored to 
push them back in order to obtain their lands for white 
settlements. The centres of growth were different, too, 
in the two systems of colonization. The French inherited 
the civilization ot the old Romans, and in their life the 
cicies and towns were more important than the country. 
The French people were more urban than rural, while the 
English loved the country life far more. The curious 
result followed, that, although the British were to develop 
the greatest city on the globe, the French developed more 
cities and a richer city growth. In Louisiana the French 
military posts were intended to develop into cities, and 
the word bourgeois (citizen) was commonly used even 
though the town was more a promise than a reality. The 
French organization did not make much use of the country, 
although it was necessary to develop the country before 
the city (in the absence of manufactures) would have any 
products to handle. The English advance from the 
Atlantic was by plantations which encroached upon the 
Indian lands, and it was therefore resented by natives. 
The new English settlements were marked by stockades to 
which the neighbors could resort for protection, while the 
French settlements were scattered far from the posts 
among the Indians themselves. The French had Indian 
wars, but these were stirred up by outside influence, many 
by the English, and not due, as generally was the case 
with the English themselves, to Indian anger at bad 
treatment by the whites. 

The French forts, therefore, were not military posts 
to hold the country against the Indians, but, on the one 
side, to control the trade with the Indians, and, on the 
other, intended to develop into cities. Hence the 



Under A Merchant Prince 79 

importance of these posts, placed by farseeing Frenchmen 
at strategic points on the coast and on Ihe rivers. 

5. Fort Toulouse. With the coming of the new govern- 
ment to Mobile plans were begun for building such outposis 
up the rivers, and in this way Natchez was founded among 
the tribe of that name on the Mississippi River. This 
was the more necessary as the English were taking advant- 
age of the Peace of Utrecht and trading as far west as the 
Mississippi. We learn of an English trader named Hutchey 
who was daring enough to come close to Mobile, where he 
was taken, and, although sent home by the French, was cap- 
lured again by the Indians and tomahawked. Bienville 
remained the chief influence over the Indians despite the 
change of government, and we find him settling the Ten- 
saws on the Mobile River after they had been worsted 
in a war where they lived west of the Mississippi. In 
the other direction the Alibamons had become more 
friendly with the French, for at Mobile they could obtain 
guns and ammunition, as well as liquor and cloth, much 
cheaper then by the old overland trade to Charleston, 
and the same change of feeling gradually came over the 
other Muscogee tribes further up the river. Bienville 
saw his chance in the war between the Muscogees and 
the English, and gladly granted the request of the Indians 
to establish a post among them. In 1714, therefore, the 
French built a fart on the neck of land just above the junc- 
tion of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers, near a mound 
to which the Alibamons resorted in case of overflow. The 
fort was named Toulouse for a son of Louis XIV, who 
was head of the French navy. The site was well chosen, 
tor it commanded the trade route from Charleston to the 
Muscogees and the more western tribes. There was 
always a garrison and a priest, but a French town did 
not develop. Instead ot that some of the Muscogee 



80 Under Five Flags 

villages were moved nearer ihe fort and gradually this 
beautiful country became the seal ot thriving agricultural 
people. It not only made secure French influenxe hereat 
the tall line, where the upper rivers leave their rocky beds 
and become one large navigable stream^, but it broke 
forever the influence of the English. No more effectual 
stroke could have been applied then when Bienville built 
Fort Toulouse. We now find the Cahaba River called the 
Cabo on French maps and different bluffs and places 
received French names. Selma stands on the bluff which 




FRENCH CANNON (Bienville Square) 

bore Bienville's name, and a little higher up near the mouth 
of a creek was Bear Fort, and nearer the site ot Montgomery 
a little island named French Island. Very few French 
seem to have lived up the Alabama River, although French 
intiuence was supreme. On the Tombigbee, at that time 
called Chickasaw (Tchicachas) River, there were more 
families. The Drapeaus lived where the Octibbeha joins 
the Tombigbee, and a little farther Up near an eastern 
rocky bluff lived the Carrieres. Other families could be 
found higher and very many lower down on the Mobile. 



Under A Merchant Prince 81 

Iberville had promised both the Chickasaws and Choctaws 
to establish a post on the Tombigbee near their 
boundary, and this was carried out, but it did not lead 
for the present to building a regular fort. One was not so 
much needed there as among the Alibamons, for the 
Choctaws were always friendly and their country in central 
Mississippi traded exclusively with Mobile. 

6. The Spanish Trade. But all this was of litile 
importance to Cadillac. Trading with the Indians, and 
even friendship with them, was beneath his notice. He 
sought to develop mining and commerce, and part of the 
dissatisfaction which he early felt was from not finding 
precious metals. Due to him was the exploration which 
the French made up all the rivers emptying into the Gulf, 
but nowhere did they find mines of gold or silver. Cadillac 
was given a piece of gold which was said to come from the 
Illinois country, and he went up there only to find, that, 
while there was copper, there was no gold. Like disap- 
pointments met all of his schemes. He looked down 
upon the trade with Pensacola and sought to establish 
direct commerce with Mexico, and several trading ships 
were sent out from Dauphine Island laden with French 
wares; but they were not permitted to land in Mexico. 
These merchants seem to have been, like so many other 
people, from Canada, and their names are given on French 
maps to points on Dauphine Island or to islands in the 
Mobile Delta. They formed the first trading company 
in the South but, however influential they were at Mobile, 
they were not able to establish any trade with Mexico. 
We have a full account of two expeditions overland con- 
ducted by the celebrated St. Denis. On the first he went 
up the Red Rixer from Mobile and then across to Mexico. 
He was well treated, but could not open any trade. The 
same result came to him on his second expedition some 



82 Under Five Flags 

years later, which he carried out on his own account. 
It is interesting in another way, for he fell in love with a 
Spanish girl on the Rio Grande, married her and after- 
wards brought her to Mobile. For the time being, how- 
ever, he was by the Spaniards kept in jail. 

7. Fort Conde. While Crozat's efforts were unsuccessful 
in so many directions, there was one thing he effected 
which lasted a long time. The original Fort Lou's built 
by Bienville in 1711 was a mere stockade of cedar or cypress 
and it was found to have been projected too far towards 
the river. Accordingly in 1717 it was withdrawn more 
within the city and rebuilt of brick, and renamed Fort 
Conde. In this form it was to last for a century. In 
plan it was not unlike the old palisade, and the slopes 
outside the moat took up about the same amount of 
space; but the brick fort within the moat was much smaller. 
In size it was about equal to one of our city blocks. Its 
eastern edge ran diagonally across where Royal Street 
now is, from near Church to near Theatre, and it extended 
westward between these two streets almost to the present 
St. Emanuel. At each corner was a bastion, and the north- 
west bastion projected over Church Street. The slopes 
outside the moat, however, called the glacis, extended 
well into the blocks on all sides. There was also a change 
of wharf. The old wharf was allowed to fall to pieces 
and many of the cedar beams still lie beneath the pave- 
ment of Government Street. A new wharf was now 
built in front of the New Fort, and received the name, 
which it ever afterwards bore, of King's Wharf. It 
passed over the site of the Old Fort and reached what was 
deep water in the middle of present Commerce StreeL. 

8. The Shipping. While the growth of the colony 
interests us more, the colonists themselves took greater 
interest in the shipping which plied to and from France. 



Under A Aler chant Prince 



83 



There was, ot course, no line of ships in the modem sense 
of the word, for trade was in the hands first of the king 
and now in that of Crozat. Before Crozat's day Chat- 
eaugue was often in command, and in times of distress he 
sailed to Vera Cruz or Havana to seek supplies, which 
were returned when the French ship came in. Chat- 
eaugue made these trips in small vessels, because there 
were no others in Mobile. Sometimes it was in the little 
twelve ton transfer boat (traversier) which was built to 




HARBOR OF LA ROCHFXLE 



ply between Dauphine Island and Mobile. The port in 
France from which ships came to Mobile was La Rochelle, 
which had been a Huguenot stronghold. The place 
remained a great port, although the royal navy had its 
headquarters at Rochefort and at Port Louis in France a 
great naval base created by the king not far away from 
Rochefort. These were all on the west coast of France, 



84 Under Five Flags 

but we are told of a ship also from St. Malo in Normandy, 
which carried under the bowsprit a wooden figure of her 
patron, St. Anthony. Some of the sailors were irreverent 
enough to cut the figure away, tie a stone around its neck, 
and sink it into the sea not far from Dauphine Island. 
We are told that immediately a storm arose and the ship 
was wrecked with its crew, in sight of land. Some years 
later a ship captain determined to remedy the proverbial 
wickedness of sailors, and in 1712 built a church out of 
his own means in Port Dauphine on Dauphine Island, 
which was visible far and near, and became a great attrac- 
tion to the place. The Pelican one remembers because 
of her service under Iberville in Hudson's Bay and because 
of her voyage in 1704, but the most famous of the ships 
probably was Iberville's flag-ship, the Renommee. 
One time she came as a private venture, loaded 
with supplies sent over by Remonville, a friend of 
the colony. Under Cadillac shipping increased greatly. 
With him came over eighty thousand dollars worth of 
merchandise for his trading ventures, and as much came 
afterwards. There were occasional shipwrecks, as the 
Justice, which sank ihe next year in the Dauphine Island 
Sound. Crozat intended building a merchant marine of 
brigantines to ply from Dauphine Island as a central point, 
but ihe Spaniards would not admit his ships. Crozat 
was not liberal himself, for we find that he refused entry 
to a frigate from Rochelle and a brigantine from Martinique. 
Ships generally came in the spring and returned in the fall 
loaded with colonial products, after two or three months 
sojourn at Dauphine Island. They were almost always 
of the royal navy, carrying from twelve to fifty giuis, and 
sometimes they came in small squadrons, such as three 
vessels which arrived in 1717. Although Mobile had 
been moved to the mouth of the river, the ships from France 



Under A Merchant Prince 85 

seldom came up to the city. They frequently drew loo 
much water and anchored at Port Dauphin. There 
they unloaded their cargoes and such as was intended for 
the city and for the Indian trade was transferred to smaller 
boats, like Chateaugue's traversier, which carried them 
up to town. There they were stored in the warehouse 



l^RI.E' HHi.OiK KROM fOKT -InrLOUSE 



f^''"rfff%^^ K?^*!^^^^? 



CANNON FROM FORT TOULOUSE 

(magasin) and sold to the people, sent up to the river 
forts, or annually delivered to the Indians, as the case 
might be. While Crozat was unable to establish the 
foreign commerce which he wished, he did develop Mobile. 
For then, as ever since, its life depended upon its shipping 
and the trade with the interior. 



CHAPTER X. 

HOW THE CREOLES LIVED, 

1. Creoles. The habitans iind Creoles lived a con- 
tented rather than a strenuous life, for amusement then 
as now was one of the French arts, and music and dancing 
were common. We read of Picard taking his violin with 
him when Bienville dispersed the people among the Indians 
to avoid starvation, and Picard taught the dark Nassitoche 
girls on Lake Pontchartrain the minuet and other dances 
familiar at Mobile. Of course wine was in use, but the 
evil side of liquor seems to have been largely confined to 
iis sale to the Indians. The woodrangers (coureurs de 
bois) were intemperate in every way, but the Creoles 
learned to live a plain and healthy life. The word Creole 
was originally applied to white people of European parent- 
age, and it became a name of great honor. As French 
mulattoes had white blood, it has became applied to them 
also, as in the case of the "Cajans" near Mount Vernon. 
These are sometimes said to be descended from the genlle 
Acadians immortalized in Evangeline. More certainty 
attaches to the Chastangs of Chastang Station, who are 
said to have the blood of Dr. Jean Chastang. While he 
was in Mobile, the doctor lived northeast Royal and 
Dauphin, but he afterwards moved to the bluff named 
for him. The Chastang dialect is French, much corrupted 
by African and English. 

2. Home Life. Woman was here, as elsewhere, the 
centre of all social life, and woman has always occupied 
an influential place among the French. The two social 
forces were Woman and the Church. The age of the 
encyclopedists had not come, and the French colonists 
were devout Catholics. Marriage, birth, sickness and 



Hoiu the Creoles Lived 87 

death made up then as now a large part of human life, and 
centered about Woman and the Church. The holy days, 
too — Christmas, Easter and the different Saint's days — 
were observed, and then too Woman and the Church 
joined in bringing families and friends together. One of 
the favorite holidays was St. Louis day, July 24, and Merry 
Mardi Gras can be found observed from the times of 
Old Fort Louis at Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff. Among the 
French the bride brought a dowry, which remained her 
own, but in Louisiana there was such a scarcity of women 
that dowry is not often mentioned. The king undertook 
to supply the colonists with wives, and among the oddest 
cargoes ever shipped were those every few years of mar- 
riageable girls. There was a famous consignment of 
twenty-three by the Pelican in 1704, and the first after 
the removal was that of 1712. The Pelican girls have been 
remembered for their objection to corn bread, which was 
new to them, but they should be remembered as the women 
whose husbands and children founded Mobile. 

3. Houses. One singular feature was that, although 
there was plenty of land, the houses were built near the 
street, and, instead of having front yards as with the 
English, flowers as well as vegetables were grown in the 
garden or court behind the house. Glass for windows 
was rare even in France, and solid shutters were the rule. 
There were few public buildings, and they differed from 
the residences in size rather than otherwise. Stone as 
yet was seldom used for buildings, nor was brick, except 
for cellars. Even two-story houses were rare. Visitors 
to and from Mexico — ^New Spain — were not unknown, but 
there was not here any use of its adobe houses, gradually 
approaching over the narrow streets. Most of the build- 
ings were frame, or wooden frames filled in with oyster 
shell plaster. Whitewash was used, and the streets were 



88 Under Five Flage 

shelled, so far as anything was done to them at all. Vines 
and trees abounded, and the little city perched on the bluff 
marked by Royal Street, was a picturesque sight to any 
visitor. There was nothing grand, as in Paris, but there 
was much comfort and the savoir vivre (knowing how to 
live) which has marked Mobile ever since. 

4. Education. Education has assumed a larger place 
with us than with these simple colonists, but it would be 
a mistake to think that there were no schools. Louis 
had subjected the church to the state, but within ils limits 
the church exercised full jurisdiction not only over religion, 
but over education — indeed education was a part of the 
duty of the priest or nun. The teaching Jesuits were not 
the official priests of Mobile, for these were missionaries 
of the Seminary of Quebec and later came the Carmelites; 
but no matter who they were, the priests as a rule were 
me.n of culture and earnestness. We learn nothing of the 
books they read, or of the school books of the children. 
Not only was the printing press unknowoi, but literature 
had little to do with social enjoyment. Nevertheless the 
church records show that many people could write, al- 
though later the cross was often the method of signature. 
One of Cadillac's daughters made a cross and she was 
fresh from the schools of Canada. Cadillac was to bring 
with him quite a number of French domestiques, but the 
usual servants of that day weie little Indian slaves cap- 
tured in war. There were not many negroes among the 
colonists when Mobile was founded — there were few at 
the Old Fort and only twenty in 1713. They began to 
be imported in numbers under John Law's Company. 
The slaves, Indian or African were always baptized. 

5. The First Mobile Author. Among the many people 
who were in Mobile in' French times several have left 
accounts of what they saw and heard. The only one who 



Ho%v the Creoles Lived 



89 



really lived there was Andre Penicaut and he is the last 
one that we would think of as an author, for by business 
he did such rough work as building boats and repairing 
them. Spelling was not a strong point with anybody in 
those days, and we are not quite sure whether we find his 
name in the church register or not. At all events, born in 
famous old Rochelle in 1680 of Catholic and not Huguenot 
stock, he, like everyone else in France, was much interested 






r ^ 








•^^v- 




■^^^ 




J.;. ■ i*^^f«^^'■» ? 



X'-'^- 



PORT DAUPHIN 



in Louisiana, and came over with Iberville in the Badine; 
and in Louisiana he remained until 1722. Penicaut was 
quite a linguist and on this account and because he was a 
ship carpenter he was a member of many exploring parties. 
Being a genial character, he met everyone, and, having 
some literary tact, he has been able to leave us a most 
interesting book. He says that he kept notes of everything 



90 Under Five Flags 

he relates, but his dates are sometimes not quite 
correct, although this may be due to the fact that he 
suffered from some eye trouble and went back to France 
almost blind. He lived in both Mobiles, spent a famous 
winter with Le Sueur in Minnesota, was among the Indians 
more than once, and lived a joyous happy life wherever 
he was. He was a true Frenchman in his sociability, his 
keen eye and ready pen. 

6. The Front Gallery. In early Mobile the houses 
were built close together, partly as a reminder of the 
walled towns in France, and partly because of the sociable 
nature of the people. They would talk from window to 
window, and often across the narrow streets, while the 
little front gallery was in some sense what Dr. Brinton 
would call the basis of social relations. An outdoor 
living room was called for by the climate and in the French 
South West its equivalent was found in this Creole front 
gallery. About Mobile the name has survived the changes 
of five flags. It was brought by the Canadians, and 
its primitive form is still found along the St. Lawrence. 
It is there a projection from the house, and does not rest 
upon pillars as with us. It is called galerie, as with the 
Southern Creoles. We have no illustrations of the Mobile 
house, but we have pictures of Dauphine Island places. 
These show one-story houses with the chimney at one end, 
but with perhaps two exceptions, no galleries or even 
sheds in front. They give us one striking feature, however,, 
of Creole architecture — the root sloping in the front and 
to the rear. It, like those of the hahitans along the St. 
Lawrence, has a curving slope, and partially projects 
over the front gallery. Tiles and even shingles weie rare, 
and thatch, often palmetto, was common. 



PERIOD III. 

A FRENCH TRADE CENTRE 

1717-1763 



A UTHORITIES. 

For this period the same authorities may be consulted 
as for the last, and to them may be added Bossu, Nou- 
vaux Voyages, Villiers du Terrage, Louisiane Francaise. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE MISSISSIPPI BUBBLE. 

1. John Law and the Regent. When Louis XIV died 
his successor was a little boy of ten. It was found ihe 
king had directed ihat the governmeni should be conducted 
by people who were not acceptable to the old nobility, 
who favored the king's nephew, the Duke of Orleans, as 
regent. The word of Louis XIV in his life time was law, 
but after his death the court called the Parlement of 
Paris set aside part of ihe will which he had left and 
acknowledged the Duke of Orleans as regenl. He imme- 
diately assumed the trust, and until 1722 was the head of 
France. His habils were bad, but there is no doubt he 
loved his country and wished to advance it. The wars 
ol Louis XIV had left France poverty stricken and only 
his great name prevented bankruptcy. The money 
question was the first, therefore, which the regent had 1o 
meet, and in solving it he came under the influence of one 
of the greatest minds of modern times. Colbert had 
realized that ihe wealth of a country consists in what its 
people are able Lo produce, for that enables them to exchange 
with foreign countries and obtain what they can not produce 
themselves. The theory of Spain was that the possession 
of gold and silver, no matter how obtained, makes a country 
rich, and the search for gold had been what led to colonization 
in America. John Law, a refugee gambler from Scotland, 
had a different theory. To him it appeared that money 
need not be gold and siver so long as the property of the 
nation was made to secure it. In other words, that a govern- 
ment could issue paper money, which stood for the land 
and other property of the nation. He became a friend of 
the regent and the regent adopted his views. Law was 



94 Under Five Flags 

first given the right to open a bank and was then granted 
in succession the charters of several French trading com- 
panies, such as those of India and or Africa, and the govern- 
ment became in a sense a partner with him. Much of 
the pubUc debt was paid off by the new money and every- 
thing went well for a while. It so happened that at the 
time Law was changing old ideas as to finance, Crozat 
was changing his old ideas as to colonization. There 
was plenty of land in Louisiana, but no gold, and Crozat 
was more than willing to have his charter cancelled. This 
was an opportunity for Law and he sought to have Loui- 
siana turned over to him, and it was soon affected. Law 
organized a Company of the West and received a charter 
based on Crozat's, but with more extensive rights. He 
sold shares of stock to the public and the greatest interest 
was aroused. In a short time the results were such as 
had never been seen before, and what Law called the 
System, but what was afterwards known as the Mississippi 
Bubble, attracted the attention of the world. 

2. The Storm of 1717. Meantime in America ths ele- 
ments seemed to be conspiring to aid Law in his plans. 
Ths old dream of La Salle had been to make the Mississippi 
River in the South what the St. Lawrence River had been 
in the North — the centre of a French empire. Sailing 
ships of that day, however, could not ascand the Mississippi 
and the banks near the mouth were not suitable for habi- 
tation, and thus it was that Mobile and Dauphine Island 
with their higher lands had developed as the joint capital 
of the colony. The town without the port would be worth- 
less and the port without the town would be helpless. 
Both had grown and flourished together. 

There have occasionally been great storms about Mobile 
Bay, but one which came in March, 1717, was the most 
momentous of all. Three French ships had arrived, the 



The Mississippi Bubble 



95 



Duclos, Paon, and Paix. The Paon entered ihe harbor 
at Port Dauphin as usual by the twenty-one fool channel, 
but while the other two were lying outside there came up 
a great storm. All rode it out in safety, but the wind 
which spared the ships acted upon the Gulf in such a 
manner as to close up the channel with sand, and the Paon 
was imprisoned This was merely inconvenient for the 
ship, because after her cargo was unloaded she was lightened 
so as to draw only ten feet and it was possible to take her 




CITY HALL, LA ROCHELLE 

around to the channel at Mobile Point, where she rejoined 
the other vessels. But the effect upon Port Dauphin 
was lasting. Vessels drawing over ten feet could no 
longer enter the harbor and its usefulness was gone. The 
effect upon Mobile itself was as great ; for the life of any 
port depends upon the depth of water to the sea. The 
importance of all this was not at first realized. Ships 
still came and were to come for years; but they had to 



96 Under Five Flags 

anchor outside the harbor and not only was it difficult 
to land their cargoes from the open sea, but the vessels 
themselves were at the mercy of every storm. 

There had already been a change in the colonial govern- 
ment, for these three vessels had brought out the appoint- 
ment of Bienville as governor for the time being and 
Hubert as commissaire, thus superseding Cadillac and 
his officials. Bienville received the Cross of the Order of 
St. Louis, an honor which he had long sought, together 
with a grant of Horn Island near Biloxi as his own property. 
This was done by Crozat himself, for Law's Company, 
although planned, was not organized until August of this 
year. Nevertheless Bienville and Hubert had to take 
the situation in hand and make plansfor the future. 

3. Capital Moved to Neiu Biloxi. The first vessel sent 
out by Law's Company arrived on February 9, 1718, and 
brought a lull commission to Bienville as governor. His 
orders were to colonize the Mississippi River and he was 
to build up the colony by grantng lands up this river and 
on all favorable points along the coast. Hubert insisted 
that the lower Mississippi was not habitable and favored 
making a new settlement near Natchez, where the bluffs 
were high. Nevertheless, Bienville examined the river 
and picked out the site of a new city, which in compliment 
to the regent was named New Orleans, as well as the site 
of a fort far up in the Illinois country named Fort Chartres. 
As both favored a site further to the west Bienville and 
Hubert finally agreed upon placing the capital of the colony 
at Biloxi. This was not the original Biloxi, for that was 
on the east side of the bay, while the new was on a bayou 
which emptied into the Sound near where one now finds 
the Biloxi lighthouse. There a new settlement was built. 

4-. A Chateau on the Bay. Law's Company issued 
glowing circuars and printed many beautiful nlaps, some 



The Mississippi Bubble 97 

of Mobile Bay, which gave us an idea of the colony of that 
day; but with the removal of the capital the government 
no longer concerns us directly. Mobile went on growing 
despite this removal and perhaps it showed a richer life 
for being without the stimulus of having the government 
olificials. 

A map of the Mississippi River and of the Gulf Coast 
will show many of Law's oblong grants of land, called 
concessions; but there were few, if any, of these on Mobile 
Bay or River. This was not altogether because Mobile 
was neglected, but rather because the choice lands had by 
this time been already granted. The time of Law's Com- 
pany, therefore, means much less for Mobile than for the 
small part of Louisiana which has retained the old name, 
but there were also distinct gains for the Mobile country. 

The government had long been trying to make the colony 
agricultural. The difficulty lay rather with the colonists 
themselves, who were not always good farmers, and 
generally became more interested in Indian trade or Spanish 
smuggling. With Law's Company this was somwhat 
changed. Not only were more people brought, but Euro 
pean plants were introduced. From his time dates our 
fig tree, which had been brought to the French West 
Indies from Spain and the Orient. The peach, cherry 
and plum were native, but oranges were about this time 
also introduced from the West Indies. Strawberries now 
became conur.on and were much praised. We do not 
learn of any new vegetables of importance, for peas, beans, 
maize and the potato were native and sufficient for colonial 
needs. We call the potato "Irish," but it is native here and 
imported into Ireland from America. Little gardens 
behind the Creole houses from time this on became usual 
and were well stocked. The first comers suffered some- 
times from sickness and from famine, but the habitans 



98 Under Five Flags 

had now become the Creoles, attached to America rather 
than to France, and having no difficulty raising whatever 
vegetables and fruits they needed. 

Bienville had for some time had a chateau on the Bay 
near the park which the city has recently opened on the 
old Fair Grounds. There he took much interest in his 
garden. Somewhat later the Jesuit Charlevoix was to 
describe many useful plants which grow about here. 
Among them was the candle myrtle, whose wax furnished 
the material for lighting, the may apple which the French 
call ipecacuanha, the sunflower which furnished aconite, 
and the saracenia was also a medicine. The ginseng was 
found over all America, and now, before coffee had been 
generally introduced, the sassafras not only supplied a 
native tea, but its ground leaves originated the famous 
Creole gumbo. The Indians used the youpon as the black 
drink which they took before going on the war path, and it 
became also a colonial medicine. Many of the roots 
which we have, such as turnips, were not yet known out 
of Holland, where they were first cultivated, but the 
flowers were much the same then as now. In Charlevoix's 
book there are pictures of the Jack-in-the-Pulpit and the 
Virgin's Slipper, and he tells us of the sweet shrub and of 
many other plants. 

All in all Bienville's chateau on the Bay was a pleasant 
place, and what with his table, his garden and the beautiful 
view, he and his friends would spend there many an after- 
noon. 

5. The Pensacola War. One would think that America 
was large enough for the colonists of Spain and France, 
a few thousand in all, and yet we find that they too were 
influenced by the wars in Europe. Immediately after 
Law's Company took charge, the French sent a colony to 
St. Joseph's Bay, far to the east of Pensacola. It might have 



The Mississippi Bubble 99 

proved permanent and left Pensacola as a little Spanish 
outpost entirely surrounded by the French and their 
allies; but war broke out in Europe between France and 
Spain. There never had been war between the two 
countries since Louis XIV had helped Spain against Europe, 
but the regent acted otherwise. In March, 1719, a war- 
ship arrived at Dauphine Island with many pasesngers, 
and a month later other vessels under Bienville's brother 
Serigny with more, and also two hundred and fifty negroes 
to be distributed among the concessions. This was the 
first large importation of Africans. The war news which 
Serigny brought was perhaps more important still, and the 
three Le Moyne brothers immediately organized an army 
to attack Pensacola. Bienville got together eight hun- 
dred French and Indians and marched overland, while 
Serigny sailed for Pensacola, to co-operate with four ves- 
sels. The attack was in May and the small Spanish 
garrison was not able to make much of a resistance. After 
it surrendered Chateaugue was lefl there with a garrison 
of three hundred and the Spanish prisoners were sent to 
Cuba. And then happened something very unusual. 
Instead of ihe Spaniards at Havana honoring the flag of 
truce, they captured the ships which brought the prisoners, 
put aboard them a large force, and proceeded to invest 
Pensacola. It was the turn of the French now to sur- 
render and Chateaugue and his garrison had to go to 
Havana as prisoners of their late prisoners. 

Nor was this all. Cuba had been long thoroughly 
Spanish and Havana was at this time a city of ten thous- 
and people, including a strong garrison. It was not dif- 
ficult, therefore, to make up a fleet, and this sailed with 
many soldiers for Dauphine Island, where St. Denis 
commanded. The storm had closed the port for the 
Spaniards as well as for the French and the large vessels 



100 Under Five Flags 

could not enter. St. Denis' fort was a mere sand bank 
behind the little settlement, and his troops and Indians 
did not exceed two hundred. The Spaniards were able 
to get into the Bay by the eastern passage at Mobile 
Point, and attacked a French settlement on Mon Louis 
Island. When they came a second time, however, Mobile 
Indians rushed down upon them from the woods and killed 
thirty and captured seventeen, whom they tomahawked 
at Mobile. 

St. Denis meantime had been able to defeat the Spanish 
attack on Port Dauphine and the fleet sailed away. He 
made captives and among them were a number of men who 
had deserted from the French, and these were shot in 
accordance with military law. This war had shown 
rapid changes, and but one more was needed. Bienr 
ville and St. Denis went overland to Pensacola again, 
and a French captain went by sea, and between them they 
recaptured the place. There they found more deserters, 
whom they hanged, and this time the French made sure 
their hold. A strong garrison was left and the Spaniards 
were not able to retake the place. It remained French 
until peace came some years later, when by an article in 
the treaty it was restored to Spain. Chateaugue had to 
remain in Morro Castle in Havana until the same time, 
and finally when the war was over the two colonies found 
themselves where they were before, the French at Mobile 
and the Spanish at Pensacola, except that ill feeling had 
been caused and a number of valuable lives lost. There 
is no doubt, however, that the energy of the French colony 
had increased greatly since John Law had superseded 
Crozat, and Mobile felt the new spirit as much as any other 
part of Louisiana. 



CHAPTER XII. 
OUR OLD ARCHIVES. 

1. The Church Registers. The tamily and land owner- 
ship are two institutions which are necessary for civiliza- 
tion and in all ages we find that public records have been 
kept of these two things. The church preserved the 
records connected with birth, marriage and death, and the 
state has kept the records connected with grants of land 
by the government and with deeds between citizens 
afterwards. Mobile was really a city of France, and 
enjoyed the same laws, so that in Mobile we find the kind 
of records that we find at Paris or in Lyons at the same 
period. A royal ordinance almost a hundred years before 
had directed that a civil officer must prepare two blank 
books each year, and put his initials on them, for use of the 
priest, and the priest should keep one as a minute book 
and return the other to the officer as a record. At Mobile 
the records kept as minutes, stitched neatly together, have 
been preserved ever since, and make up the most precious 
material which history knows in our part of thecounLry. 
The priest under the correct date certifies that he has 
baptised a certain child, giving its name and the names of the 
the parents and of the witnesses, and perhaps other infor- 
mation. Then the priest signs, and the witnesses and 
sometimes others sign with him. In this way we have 
information not only of births, but as to the business of the 
different colonists. 

From these records we learn the succession of priests 
and also of civil officers. Davion's name occurs at rare 
intervals as late as 1720, but he was evidently here on 
visits. We have Huve's entries off and on until the 
succeeding year, when he went on a mission to the 



102 Under Five Flags 

Mississippi Indians, and five years later on account of 
increasing blindness was compelled to return to France. 
Other priests were good men and did their duty, and of 
them should specially be remembered Father Beaubois. 

After Law's Company assumed charge it built churches 
and by agreement with the Bishop of Quebec divided Louis- 
iana into three districts. The Illinois region went to the 
Jesuits, New Orleans and the South West to the Capuchins, 
but the Mobile district from the Ohio to the Gulf was 
looked after by the Barefoot Carmelites. Few Carmelites 
came to Mobile, however, and the Capuchin order sup- 
plied most of the cures. The Jesuits had missionaries 
among the Chickasaws, Alibamons and Choctaws — the 
Choctaw station being at Chickasahay {Tchicachae) . With 
the growth of the colony the Mobile cure sometimes 
signs himself as vicar apostolic, which means he reported 
directly to Rome, and sometimes as vicar of the Bishop of 
Quebec. Sometimes there was a separate missionary 
to the Apalaches, the most Catholic of all the Indians, but 
generally the Mobile cure had to visit not only the Apa- 
laches and Tensaws, but the French on Dauphine Island 
and at Pascagoula. The Apalaches had moved southward 
with the French and lived in a village between Three Mile 
Creek (Bayou Chateaugue) and Chickasabogue, which 
the French sometimes called the St. Louis River from the 
parish of St. Louis among the Apalaches. The priest 
lived there in a frame house under the beautiful oaks and 
his stone cellar can still be seen in the lumber yard near a 
saw mill. Later we find the Apalaches and Tensaws over 
at the mouths of the rivers which bear their names in 
Baldwin County. 

The oldest register was used only for baptisms, but in 
1720 the Company supplied a book in which was to be 
recorded baptisms, then marriages, and then deaths; but 



Our Old Archives 103 

in point of fact no separate record was kept for marriages. 
Many are found in the Baptismal Register, while the deaths 
from 1720 are recorded in a separate book. The marriage 
entries give the name, age, quahty and residence of each 
of the bridal couple, and also the names of witnesses. 
The burial records give the date of death, as well as of the 
funeral, and there sign, beside the priest, near relatives 
and friends who are in the funeral party. 

2. Concessions of Land. There was at first no regular 
grant of land, and in fact this continued to be the rule 
throughout French times. It was so important to have 
colonists that the government did not take the trouble to 
make a formal grant, and occupancy amounted to owner- 
ship. With the advent of Law's Company this was changed 
in regard to the large tracts, but few grants of Mobile 
city lots are known, for most of these had been already 
occupied. The procedure was a written request by the 
person desiring land, and then the concession, signed by the 
governor and commissaire, concluded by registration of 
the papers by the clerk in the office of the Supreme Council. 
The earliest grant of which we know was of Mon Louis 
Island to Nicholas Baudin, made at the Old Fort by Bien- 
ville and D'Artaguette, and ratified by Cadillac three years 
laler, and it is remarkable that this tract remained in the 
family until quite recent days. The next concession 
was one on Fish River (in present Baldwin County) to 
La Pointe, made by Cadillac in 1715 and countersigned by 
the commissaire. 

The concessions in the time of Crozat led the way to 
those by Law, which specified the object of the grant. 
In case of La Pointe this was stated to be to raise cattle. 
The title became complete provided the grantee cultivated 
the land for two years, but was subject to whatever taxes 
might be imposed, and also to the royal claims for timber 



104 Under Fiiie Flags 

for forts, repair of ships and other public works, including 
taking ihe whole tract, if necessary for fortifications. A 
cedar grove was reserved in the La Pointe Grant. 

After the Apalaches moved over to the eastern shore of 
Mobile Bay, their territory, the well known St. Louis 
tract, extending from Three Mile Creek to Chickasabogue, 
was granted to D'Artaguette in 1733. Somewhat later 
there was a town grant made to the famous Madame de 
Lusser. Her husband had fallen in an Indian war and 
she was granted this tract at about our Eslava Street, 
extending from the river westwardly to where the Protest- 
ant Orphan Asylum now stands on Dauphin Street, 
between Broad and Common Streets. The object of the 
grant was agriculture, but the Madame only cleared so 
much as she needed and built cabins for her slaves there. 

One tract which still bears the old name of Lisloy — an 
abbreviation of Uisle-aux-oies (Goose Island) — -is on Fowl 
River. The description is indefinite, but the tract has 
always been well knouTi. There had been no actual 
grant, and towards the end of the French period there 
was a certificate that this, like many other tracts, was 
privately held by government permission. The land was 
used for cattle raising. 

3. Conveyances. After the government had parted with 
its title the land was private property and passed from one 
person to another by deeds. These were, however, different 
from our deeds, w^hich state that one person for a certain 
sum of money sells certain described lands ^o another, 
the grantor signing the paper and a notary affixing a 
certificate. The French had the old Roman custom, by 
which a notary not only drew up the paper, but drew it 
up as something done before him as a court. Both parties 
signed, with witnesses, and the notary kept the deed him- 
self. He would give a certified copy if asked, but his office 



Our Old Archives 105 

was and still is in French countries a kind of record room 
where papers are kept. These French deeds are provoking 
in one respect, for the description is so vague that we 
can not tell where the places were. One deed says that 
the house sold was opposite to that bought by a tailor 
and next door to a lady's vacant lot. In some cases we 
can identify the land only because the property remained 
in the same family until the time when modern deeds 
give more definite boundaries. 

4. The Notary. The notary and cure, therefore, were 
in some respects the most important officers in Mobile, 
The cure kept all the records of the three great family 
events of birth, marriage and death, and the notary made 
all land records and kept them in his house. Both places 
were in the nature of record offices. The notary was 
probably even more familiar than the commandant with 
the law, for he came in closer touch with the people. We 
know the names of several notaries, and Dubourdieu was 
so long in office and witnessed so many papers t hat he should 
be remembered. What has become of the notarial papers 
no one knows. The church records are with us, because 
the church is still with us, but French law and offices are 
gone. The church records were kept in books, while the 
deeds, although drawn by the notary, were separate 
papers and easily lost. The notary is to be thought of as 
having an office, but going from place to place as wanted, 
an old man, perhaps, dressed much like the other hahitans, 
except that he would have in his belt an inkhorn and under 
his arm the Coutume de Paris or legal papers. 

5. Court Proceedings. At first the governor acted also 
as a judge, but it did not take long to show the necessity 
for separate courts. Now-a-days we draw a sharp line 
between three departments of government — executive, 
legislative and judicial — but in those days there was no 



106 Under Five Flags 

such division. There was only the distinction between 
the governor as a miHtary officer, the commissaire as a 
civil officer, looking out particularly lor the king's property 
and revenue,. and a royal judge for law suits almost from 
the first. 

One of the changes introduced by Crozat was the estab- 
lishment of a Superior Council, sometime called the Sov- 
ereign Council, made up of high officials. This was needed 
because ihe colony was growing, and the Council acted 
as a superior to the commandants of the different posts, 
and as a court of appeals from their decisions in law suits. 
The duties of this Council were afterwards extended, and 
in one shape or other it lasted throughout the French 
times, whether the government was by the king's lieutenant 
or by Law's Company. 

The commandant acted as the American probate 
judge does, but sometimes there was what we would call a 
general administrator, who looked after the property of 
people who died. He had more power than the modem 
officer of that title, for whenever anyone died it was his 
duty to put a seal on the papers and even on the door of 
the deceased, and in due time sell all property for payment 
of debts and expenses and for division among heirs. In 
one such case a petition was addressed to the royal judge 
asking for sale of the property of a dead man, a notice 
was then posted up for the judicial sale of his house and 
lot, and the sale was had at the church door on three 
successive Sundays. On the first Sunday a bid was made, 
on the second some one raised it, and on the third the price 
went much higher, for that was the time of the real sale. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

ALONG THE COAST. 

1. The Creoles and the Water. While there were few 
concessiojis made about Mobile in the time of John Law, 
the usual practice had been (hat which he adopted. There 
were few roads in those days and so long as the colonists 
lived along the river banks or seacoast there was not much 
need for them. A paddle and a dugout canoe, the larger 
freight boat known from Spanish times as piragua, or the 
similar flat bottom passenger boat known as the carriage 
(voitiire), were sufficient for all needs. After negro 
slavery superseded Indian, there were plenty of oarsmen, 
and the Creoles themselves became expert sailors. They 
lived on their distant farms contented and in as perfect 
security from the Indians as the coureurs who traded among 
the Indians themselves. The low country about Mobile 
is much cut up by the sluggish streams which the French 
call bayous, many of which still keep iheir old names. 

2. Place Names Around the Bay. Some of the waters 
about Mobile still bear Indian names and the Chickasa- 
bogue goes back to some prehistoric times when the Chick- 
asaws instead of the Choctaws lived on Mobile River, and 
Chocolochee and Chucfee Bays near Tensaw Riv^er cannot 
now be translated. One Mile Creek under the French 
was Bayou Marmot te, called from a rat or weasel, and 
Three Mile Creek was named Bayou Chateaugue for 
that celebrated Frenchman. High up the bayou is a 
shallow place called the Portage, where the Choctaws 
crossed to come down their trail, now known as Spring 
Hill Road, and the Freach had to carry their canoes 
around this Portage if they wanted to go up the stream. 
Over to the south a source of Dog River is still known as 
Bayou Durand, from an old French family. 



108 Voider Five Flags 

Up Mobile River lived the families of La Tour at 
Twenty-One Mile Bluff, and Parent near Mt. Vernon. 
Tensaw River was then called Spanish River and one of 
the delta islands nearby was named Hog Island. Lower 
doAvn in later times were the Tensaws and Apala^hes, and 
the well known engineer Minet seems to have given his 
name to the bay which has ever since retained it. High 
up a creek there are a number of Indian mounds, which 
are still called for the Touachas, of whom so little is known. 
Their name seems to be that of one of the Alibamon 
villages known to De Soto, although Penicaut brings 
them from Florida. Their great mounds are among the 
most interesting remains in our country. A French vil- 
lage occupied the beautiful spot ever since called the Village, 
and our Montrose, later named for a Scotchman, was under 
the French called Red Bluff, — a name which the British were 
afterwards to retain. Fish River was so called in those 
days, and in the south fork was a waterfall which can now 
hardly be traced. From that location came valuable 
stone used for building. Bon Secours means good help 
and was appropriate to > hal sheltered bay. The name may 
have come from the church at Mont real which was dedicated 
to sailors, where they would say their last prayers on the 
outward voyage, and the image on top was the first object 
they would see on their return. The Lagoon was so called 
by the French as well as by the Spaniards. Perdidb 
River was, of course, Spanish and marked what was finally 
the boundary between the French and Spanish colonies. 
Mobile Point always bore this name and the little islands 
outside were called Goziers for the weeds which grew 
upon them. Through them at this time the great volume 
of water emptying into the bay was gradually digging out a 
deep channel to take the place of the one closed at Dauphine 
Island in the storm of 1717. On the western shore below 



Along -ilie Coast 



109 



-^^yV-t^ 



-SI. ' '^. 






w 



Vi 







110 Under Five Flags 

Bienville's chateau were Dog, Deer and Fowl Rivers, 
bearing the same names as now, and a beautiful spring 
gave the name to Belle Fontaine. Mon Louis Island 
was called for Baudin, its owner, who came from Mont 
Louis near Tours in France. He lived on the Bay side 
of the island at a place called Miragouane or Miragoine, 
sometimes receiving the title of Sieiir therefrom. Its 
meaning is not quite certain, but seems to be the same as 
our Mosquito. His title, therefore, is something like the 
Knight of the Mosquito. 

The region about Bayou La Batre was seen and named 
at the beginning of the French time. Grand Bay they 
called Pine Bay, the little island opposite Pine, which 
we know as Coffee Island, while the islands further east 
about Grant's Pass were called the Reeds. 

3. Dauphine Island. We have studied ihe history of 
Port Dauphin with its once deep harbor and the beautiful 
church built by the ship captain, as well as the Spanish 
attack in the Pensacola war. A British privateer or pirate 
from Jamaica had raided ii even earlier, and this was one of 
the reasons for drawing Mobile and the port closer together. 

The island was to be a favorite place for Indian councils, 
but the church records show that it was the residence of 
many Frenchmen also. The priest frequently came there 
and French names have even yet survived as names of 
places. The shell bank on the north side was once an 
Indian mound, and, crowned with cedars, has always been a 
favorite resort. Little Dauphine Island was then called 
for Guillori who lived upon it. Possibly the sailor Chateau- 
gue is still commemorated in the Point Chugae found 
upon the maps, and Graveline Bay recalls the merchant 
partner of St. Denis in his romantic expedition to Mexico. 
In the interior oi the island is Point Vendigarde, but the 
origin of this name is a mystery. 



Along the Coast 111 

4. Pascagoula. One of the places explored by the 
Spaniards, but which they did not settle, was the counlry 
of the Pascagoula Indians. This is said to mean bread 
eaters and the origin of the little tribe is of more than 
passing interest. The French established no post, but a 
number of Frenchmen settled near the mouth of the river. 
One of the upper branches was called Chickasahay and it 
will become better known to us. The Indians lived on 
the west side of the marshy delta and there is a tradition 
that a Spanish priest built a mission among them. They 
gradually turned from thsir worship of a mermaid to the 
Catholic service, and learned to love the cross, the bell 
and the mysterious box on the altar. Once upon a time 
at midnight, however, the river rose in a tidal wave under 
the full moon, and on ths crest appeared the mermaid, 
pleading for her children to come back to her. And 
come back they did, plunging into the water and leaving 
the priesi upon the shore; and I hen she laughed and dis- 
appeared. The father declared that a crucifix dropped in 
the river- at full moon would break the spell, but that the 
priest who did it would die; and no one has ever dared to 
tr\' it. They say that the mermaid's music may still be 
heard under the boats of fishermen and therefore sure it 
is that the charm has never been broken. Howev^er all 
this may be. La Pointe lived at the mouth of the main 
stream, not far from the present railroad track, and in 
Law's time in that bend of the river now called Moss 
Point was the concession of Madame Chaumont. The 
river was so winding that there was a famous portage 
cutting off this great bend, used of old by the Indians and 
continued even after the French period. 

Pascagoula was a part of the Mobile parish and is often 
mentioned in the church records, both of marriages and 
bap; isms. 



112 Under Five Flags 

5. The Mosquito Fleet. John Law sent colonists from 
everywhere, pariicularly irom the slums oi Paris, but few 
came to Mobile. Its population was largeiy due, first 
to the Canadians, and ihen lo colonists from the west of 
France. These, like the Normans who settled Canada, 
were good sailors, for the wesi coasi is deeply indented 
and devt loped a seafaring lace. Ships came from France 
but once or 1wice a year, but then soon developed a coast- 
ing traffic about the Mobile waters. The mosi impoitant, 
perhaps, was the traversier which plied between Dauphine 
Island and the city, carrying down goods for shipment 
and bringing back supplies Irom France. One or the 
most important officsrs, therefore, was the patron or captain. 
The names of several of them are known, the one most 
frequently occurring being Girard, We do not know the 
name of the first boat, but an early one bore the name of 
Marguerite. The first traversier was of sixty tons and 
dates irom the year Mobile was founded, sometimes 
going lo Pensacola and often lo Havana and Vera Cruz 
tor supplies. We would not understand the Mobile 
settlement it we thought of it as purely local. It was 
really part of a great French colonial empire in the west. 
The French West India Islands of San Domingo and 
Martinique were older settlements and were flourishing. 
Mobile was a pait of this empire, all of which was connected 
by a large marine trade. Then as now goods were shipped 
from Mobile to the French islands and French goods 
brougljt back in exchange. The boats were small and 
few in number, but the daring of the sailors was all the 
greater. 

Nor was this coasting trade all. The hahitans were 
Catholics, and according to Catholic customs on Fridays 
and fast days meat was not eaten, while fish food was 
allowed. The result was a large fish trade. The fishermen 



Along the Coast 113 

lived near the mouth of the Bay, as they always have, 
while oysters seem to have come in those days principally 
from near Dauphine Island. 

The tonnage of these small boats varied as well as their 
names. Shipping reached the west ot Europe from the 
Mediterranean Sea and goes back to the Roman and 
Phoenician times, and one oi the old names was feloiique, 
a two masted boat wiih sloping sails. The Dutch were 
sailors betore the French, and their word sloop gave the 
name to the French chaloupe. There were other small 
craft named lor the Bay of Biscay, and otherwise. On 
the rivers was used the old Indian canoe, but this was not 
of bark as on the northern waters. Here it was otten^r 
the trunk of a tree hollowed out first by burning and then 
by scraping away I he burnt wood, until it became often a 
long boat bearing several tons or many people. 

Iberville planned a great shipyard on Dauphine Island, 
but this was not realized, though small boats were often 
made in Mobile waters. In proportion they were more 
important then than now, tor there were no roads except 
the narrow Indian trails, and everything was done by water. 
For this reason the Creoles all li\'ed on the water when 
they could, and to these small boats it is due in the many 
times of famine thai the French colony did not perish like 
Raleigh's colony al Roanoke, but lived on through troubled 
times to reach at last prosperity. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

THE TRADE CONTEST WITH CHARLESTON. 

1 . Coureurs de Bois. The Indians themselves had 
developed a kind of interlribal trade before the while 
man came, and had adopted as their own the trails long 
since made by the buffalo and prehistoric animals. The 
Mobilians had been crushed by De Soto, but their dialect 
still remained in America what French had become in 
Europe, an international language. The aboriginal com- 
merce related mainly to weapons and ornaments, and any 
collection of Indian remains will show inslrumenls made 
of si one which have been brought from a great disiance. 
Even among the natives lhe trader was a well known per- 
son and protected by a rough kind of international law. 
It may not be certain whether the first while travelers were 
priests or traders; neither left records and their work has 
been forgotten, but they were actuated by two of the 
strongest human passions,- — love of man ?nd love of money. 
The one sought to do the Indian good by teaching him 
religion, the olher to enrich himself by buying from the 
Indian what he was willing to sell. When the trader used 
the rivers he was called a voyageur, when he hunted 
through the forest, a coureur debois, (woodranger,) and the 
same man might have both characters. These wood- 
rangers became more than half Indian and sometimes 
forgot all civilized ties. They would generally bring 
Indian wares by canoe or pack saddle to the military posts 
on the St. Lawrence, the Mississippi, or the Mobile, and 
sell them to the commandants for guns, ammunition, 
cloth, liquor, and trinkets, which they would trade off 
again to the Indians in the interior for more goods. Gradu- 
allv the Indians learned to come themselves, but the 



The Trade Contest With Charleston. 115 

coureur was ever the advance guard of French civiHzation, 
whether on the St. Lawrence^or on the Gulf. 

2. Indian Trade from Mobile. If the Indians had been 
left to themselves the next step in civilization would have 
been agriculture. They had already begun to take the 
step, buf their farming was left to the women, while the 
men remained hunters and fishers. The lack of domestic 
animals like the horse and ox had prevented much advance, 
when the coming of the white man put the products of 
civilization ia the hands of the Indian without his passing 
through this stage which had been found necessary to tha 
white man himself. WheLher the Indian would be 
abls to make this leap over a period in civilization was yet 
to be seen. It might be that he would be like a scholar 
who omits a year and tries to go along with an upper class 
for which he is not suited. Time only would tell. 

At all events the Indian found himselt able to exchange 
skins, furs, corn and 'obacco for clothing, blankets, fire- 
arms and ammunition, and, sad lo say, for fire-wa<er, 
which he could not learn to ise in moderation. Tools tor 
agriculture were not much in demand among the Indians, 
and hunting was encouraged by the fact thai in the trade 
with the whites the deer skin was the standard of value 
by which everything else was measured. Twice a year, 
in spring and fall, furs and skins were brought to Mobile 
or (o the forts on the upper rivers, and in return blue and 
red cotton goods, blankets, ribbons, guns and ammunition, 
breiss kettles, axes and hatchets were taken back to the 
nation. The principal French cloth goods were named 
Mazamet and Limbourg. 

If the coureurs were somewhat independent, the com- 
mandant at the French fort to whom all goods were 
brought was a royal officer, and the Indian trade was 
really a royal affair. The hold of the French on the Gulf 



116 Under Five Flags 

Coasi was firmly fixed when they built Fort Toulouse and 
afterwards Fort Tombecbe, excepi during the time Cadillac 
offended the Choctaws. Only two villages remained 
friendly until Bienville was able to win back the upper 
towns also, but from that time ths Choctaws remained the 
firm allies of the French. 

The French established a trading house among the 
Chickasaws on the upper Tombigbse, among the Cherokees 
on the shoals of the Tennessee, and even among the upper 
Indians on the bluff where Nashville now stands. All of 
these got iheir goods from Mobile and brought the pro- 
ceeds there. 

3. Adair and the British Traders. However the British 
might clash with lhe natives who were their neighbors, 
Scotch traders were early in the woods and penetrated for 
hundreds of miles in all directions. This was true almost 
from the lime that Jamestown was founded in 1607 and 
even more true after Charleston was built in 1680. These 
British traders would go in caravans from Charleston up 
the Indian trails, especially to the Cherokees and Mus- 
cogees, or Creeks, as they called them from the numerous 
small streams in the country. Nor did the traders even 
stop there, for they were found at first among the Choc- 
taws, and at all times among the Chickasaws, and even on 
the Mississippi River. The founding of Mobile was the 
first step by the French towards breaking up this trade, 
and the building of the two French forts up the Alabama 
and Tombigbee Rivers was the next. Among the British 
traders there was none more active than James Adair, 
a Scotchman from Charleston, who has written a famous 
book on the American Indians. He has never a good 
word for Mobile in his book and in his trade life did every- 
thing possible to extend the Brilish interest over the four 
great southern tribes. He it was who caused the trouble 



The Trade Contest With Charleston. 117 

among tha Choctaws and to him was dua the first friend- 
ship of the Crseks for the^EngUsh, and afterwards the 
hosliHty of the Chickasaws to the French. There is a 
very true sense in which the fate of the South could be 
said to be decided by the contest of the traders from 
Mobile and from Charleston, and among the Charleston 
traders there was none greater than James Adair. When 
Fort Toulouse cut them off from the Alabama, the British 
erected a fort which they called Okfuskee higher up the 
Tallapoosa, and changed their trading path to the moun- 
tain country between the Tennessee valley and the sources 
of the Gulf-bound rivers. The Charleston traders were 
driven back, but took a new hold. 

4. Fort Toulouse. Fort Toulouse was founded in 1714 
below where Wetumpka now stands and was of the greatest 
importance in maintaining the French hold upon the 
Muscogees. Its commandant was head of the trade and 
politics on the border between the French colony of Louisi- 
ana and the English colony of Carolina, and his position 
was not an easy one. Even the soldiers gave trouble, and 
we often find, both before Law's time and after, that they 
did not like the service in America. They frequently 
ran away from the different French posts to Pensacola and 
even to Charleston. One case was where the garrison 
mutinied on Cat Island near Biloxi and compelled a man 
named Beaudrot to pilot them thiough the woods. They 
were captured by the Toulouse garrison, and one of the 
most terrible stories of Louisiana history is their fate. 
They were taken to Mobile and Beaudrot as well as them- 
selves punished by being nailed up in coffins in the esplanade 
and then sawn asunder while alive by soldiers from the 
garrison. 

Some years later there was a mutiny of the garrison at 
Fort Toulouse itself. The commandant Marchand had 



118 Under Five Flags 

married an Indian, spoken of as a princess in the accounts 
of the day, and their daughter was Sehoy, of whom we shall 
hear laler. For some reason the garrison of the fort rose 
and killed him, and took to the woods, meaning to go to 
Charleston. The post always had a Jesuit priest as chap- 
lain, but he happened to be absent that day. On his 
return he and some others roused the Indians, who were 
all friendly to the French, and pursued the fugitives and. 
captured them. They were taken back to the fort and 
thence to Mobile, and there in the esplanade they were 
shot for the mutiny. Fort Toulouse, therefore, had a 
somewhat checkered history, but nevertheless always 
maintained French influence on these upper waters. One of 
its cannon can still be seen in the State Museum at Monl- 
gomery. 

5. Fort Tomhecbe. Bienville's patron John Law him- 
self fell into trouble and after a few years had to seek 
safety in flight to Venice. The Company, however, was 
administered by receivers, and they kept Bienville as 
governor until 1732. He was not now a great deal at 
Mobile, for he was striving to build up the numerous 
concessions on the Mississippi River. The capital had 
been removed from Biloxi to New Orleans in 1722 and that 
city was now his headquarters. His successor did not 
know how to deal with the Indians and not only brought on 
a massacre by the Natchez, but alienated the Chickasaws, 
who were friendly with the Natchez. 

Bienville was made governor again in 1735 and knew it 
was necessary to conquer the Indians into friendship. 
The Chickasaws on their side knew with whom they had to 
deal. Bienville got together a strong force, left Mobile 
and proceeded up the Tombigbee River to the great white 
cliff now known as Jones' Bluff. This he fortified and 
called Fort Tombecbe. He then marched westwardly 



The Trade Contest With Charleston 119 

and at a place in northeast Mississippi called Aekia attacked 
Chickasaw villages, over which floated the English flag. 
He had not been able to bring up his artillery, and, being 
deserted by his Choctaw allies, was finally defeated. He 
then withdrew to Fort Tombecbe, and, much mortified, took 
his troops back down the river to Mobile. 

Bienville attacked the Chickasaws again a year or two 
later from the Mississippi, and made a treaty with them 
which did not satisfy him, but at least prevented further 
trouble from them. While founded amid such unfavor- 
able conditions, the fort always remained and strengthened 
French influence on the upper Tombigbee. Supplies came 
regularly from Mobile and Indian wares in large amounts 
were shipped down the river to the port. The Indians 
came from all directions and orders connected with the 
Indian trade still survive in Mobile. They show intimate 
relations between the French and Indians and cover 
goods of all kinds. 

The timber trade of Mobile began when Iberville got a 
mast for his ship while the Old Fort was building, but it 
had altiiined full force when a commandant of Fort Tom- 
becbe built a great raft of which we are told. During a 
freshet, when the river was deep, he constructed a raft of 
cedar logs, drawing twelve feet and containing five hundred 
tons of timber, and went down the river on it himself with 
four others. It was unmanageable, for it could not be 
stopped at the city, and went on out into the Bay and 
grounded opposite Montrose. This feat has probably 
not been equalled since. 

Toulouse and Tombecbe made the French influence 
supreme on the rivers. 



CHAPTER XV 

THE SEVEN YEARS WAR IN THE SOUTH. 

1. France and E?igland. It is somewhat remarkable 
that up to the Nineteenth Century France and England 
have always been on opposite sides in the European wars. 
The reason is that they were close together and jealous, and 
were both great colonizing peoples. Each seemed to feel 
that there was not room for two colonial empires at one 
time, and the result was war both in the colonies and in 
Europe. What is called the Seven Years War, lasting 
from 1756 to 1763, was their final test. Prussia under 
Frederick the Great was developing at the expense of the 
neighboring nations, and France naturally opposed the 
new power, while England as naturally supported Fred- 
erick. An English historian, like Macaulay, may think 
that the Hindoos in the East and the Indians in the West 
fought in aid of these European quarrels, but it would be 
truer Lo say, for America at least, that the French 
habitans and the English colonists embraced the oc- 
casion of the European war to fight out their own differences. 
Not only was there the constant trade conflict with Charles- 
ton, but the partisans of the French and of the English 
were engaged in actual war, sometimes when there was 
peace in Europe. 

2. The Provincial Town. Bienville had gone back to 
Europe broken-hearted after the partial failure of his 
plans against the Chickasaws, and while New Orleans 
under the stately Governor Vaudreuil could find other 
interests, it seems that Mobile must share her founder's 
ill fortune. After the Chickasaw war we find matters did 
not go well at Mobile. Not only had many people moved 
to the Mississippi concessions, but there was not much 



The Seven Years War in the South 121 

business carried on at Mobile except in connection with 
the Indian trade. The city always remained the centre 
for that business. lis communication with the tour 
great southern tribes was much belter than that ot the 
New Orleans aad as a matter of policy \\ was thought better 
to keep the Indians away from the provincial capital. 
The colony was not flourishing as a whole, and it was 
preferable for the Indians not 1o see this. 

Two things in particular marked the Mobile of the 
later French times. In the first place came a grant to 
Madame de Lusser which ran a country concession athwart 
what had been a part of the old city. It may have been 
proper to grant Madame de Lusser land in place of a pen- 
sion, but it showed that town property at Mobile was of 
much less value than formerly. We have light of the same 
kind also on the city north of the Fort. Mobile had dif- 
fered from every other city that was founded in America 
in that it had no protection against the Indians, for, unlike 
Jamestown and Charleston, it was built upon friendship 
with the natives and so needed no protecnon against 
their enmity. The policy of the later governors of 
Louisiana had not kept up to the plans ot its founders. 
Sometimes even the Choctaws were hostile, and made 
free to take the cattle or injure the properly of French- 
men. It became necessary finally to fortify the town and 
the limits of the palisade which was run showed that the 
town had shrunk to a small fraction of its old self. A 
palisade was run in 1748 from the Fort along Royal Street 
to St. Francis, then westward to St. Charles (St. Joseph), 
and south to the Fort again, thus taking in only three city 
squares, besides the fort esplanade, where the court house 
now stands. There were several gates, three in front where 
Royal was intersected by the esplanade, Dauphin and St. 
Francis, and one in the rear at Dauphin and St. Joseph. 



122 Under Five Flags 

The palisade enclosed what was mainly government 
property, however, and there were many dwellings outside. 
Possibly seventy-five dwellings are shown upon the map 
of 1760, which would indicate a probable population 
of three hundred people. The hospital had always been 
an institution of the place. Originally h was at the south- 
east corner of Conception and Dauphin, but in later times 
was further up, at St. Anthony and Royal. Behind it, 
near St. Joseph Street, was at that time a little graveyard, 
and in the block south was the royal warehouse (magasin). 
The main cemetery of the place was still, as it had always 
been, about the church west of the Fort, probably in the 
block south of Christ Church on St. Emanuel Street, but 
extending westwardly also for some distance. Skeletons 
have been dug up on Theatre Street and also on Govern- 
ment Street not far east and west of Joachim. The 
cemetery is the one part of a city which grows whether 
the rest flourishes or not. Another evidence of dullness 
in Mobile in these later days is that the line of Conti Street 
had not been preserved. Houses were built over it just 
as if no street was there, while the actual roadway was 
about a hundred feet further south and bore the puzzling 
name of Rue de Coney, (Conty?) 

One of the interesting features of this map was a build- 
ing on the east side of Conception just south of Conti 
which was owned by the king and devoted to the use of 
the savages. Here, it is likely, were the Indian congresses 
which were held in Mobile quite frequently, and here it 
was tha^ the Indians assembled and voted to the governor 
Kerlerec in 1754 the title of Father of the Choctaws. 

The Fort itself was always kept in good shape. It had 
long since been rebuilt of brick and surrounded by a moat 
and grassy slopes {glacis), but beyond lay the open ground 
(esplanade) always kept about a fort. The Fort from 



The Seven Years War in the South 123 

lip to tip of the bastions was three hundred feet and from 
lip to tip of the glacis was five hundred and forty feet, 
as it had been ever since Bienville rebuilt the post. It 
was entered across the southern glacis where the jail now 
stands, and one passed through a brick wall twenty feet 
high from the bottom of the moat. In three fronts at 
least'were brick casements for cannon, and in the ceaire an 
open squars or parade, with a flag staff in the centre floating 
the lilies of France. On the south of the parad? were two 
wells, and east and west were one story barracks for two 
hundred and sixteen men. In the northwestern bastion 
was a bake-house, 3nd in the southeastern the ppwder 
magazine. 

From the eastern parapet ot the Fort one could see 
stretching out to the north and south an open way called 
Royal Street and then spoken of as ihe Quay, while in 
tront was the single wharf of the city, narrow in part 
across the miry bank, but wider towards the eastern end, 
where it reached the river. From the fort ramparts on 
all sides lay in full view of the tiled or bark roofs of Mobile. 
Much of this can be made out trom a map which itself has 
a romantic story. It was made in 1760 by Phelypeaux, 
and marks in red the royal property. Down in one corner 
is a Spanish writing which stales that the plan was found 
at the capture of Mobile in 1780. What then became of 
it is uncertain, but it has now passed into the possession 
of the Department of the Interior at Washington. It 
bears the signature ot the United States Surveyor General 
Freeman and is one of the most valuable records which 
has survived. 

3. Colonial Industries. If the war prevented much 
import and export, nevertheless industrial affairs had by 
this time reached a settled condition. Gold mines had not 
been discovered, despite exploration towards the west, 



124 Under Five Flags 

but lead near St. Louis and copper near Lake Superior were 
worked in paying quantities. This did not benefit Mobile 
very much, for ihey went 'hrough Quebec or New Orleans, 
but much had been realized in the way of furs and peltry. 
It is true the attempis to make aay use of the coarse 
hair of the buffalo, on which so much was based at first, 
had now been abandoned, just as the idea had been aban- 
doned of taming that animal into a beast of burden. 
Beaver skins were found, but the best still went down the 
St. Lawrence. Much was done in the way of raising 
cat*le, even in the piney woods about Mobile. Horses 
had increased and hogs flourished everywhere. 

Besides vegetables in the little gardens, much had now 
been accomplished in the way of agriculture. Experi- 
ments showed that whsat did not grow so far south, but 
it flourished about Toulouse and Natchez. Silk was 
tried, but with little success. Cotton was known, al- 
though not cultivated to any great extent. This seems 
strange to us now, but it is to be remembered that the large 
settlements were on the lower rivers and where the pine 
flourished. Wool was still the main material for clothing 
and it was not for some lime 1 o come thai col ton goods were 
much kno^v^l outside of Mexico. Sugar cane had been 
introduced and grew on ihe Mississippi River, but little 
was grown near Mobile. 

The principal exports of the colony, besides peltries, 
were found in tobacco and indigo. These were extensively 
cultivated and had attracted the attention of the observant 
Charlevoix even in the time ot Law's Company. 

There was little in the way of manufactures, nor was 
there a great deal even in France a^ this time. Fancy 
articles were made in Paris and woollen goods manu- 
factured in the northeast of France, bu< the age of manu- 
factures had not yet come. There was little machinery, 



The Seven Years War in the South 125 

and what was produced was what manufacture Hterally 
means — hand-made — and made ai home a1 that. Saw 
mills were known about Mobile, one being speciglly men- 
tioned on a bayou a league away. Bricks were made and 
were now in some demand for building purposes, for not 
only Fort Conde, but other buildings were constructed of 
brick. Lime kilns turned much ot the shell mounds into 
lime for mortar, and this was not only used with the 
brick, but, mixed with Spanish moss, was employed to 
fill the spaces between the posts of the houses. 

There were many shops about the little town and shop- 
keeping (marchand) was perhaps the most common em- 
ployment. A shop then did not mean a big store, but the 
front room of a colonial home, with wares displayed in 
the window or out in froni , and the business, in true French 
style, was conducted as often by the wife as by the husband. 
There were many mechanics and artisans, and of these 
carpenters were well known. In Europe during the Mid- 
dle Ages the different branches of trade were organized 
into close societies called guilds, and, although these did 
not exist in Mobile, the titles which they invented were in 
use hsre. Of thess "master carpenter" and even "master 
cannoneer" are frequently mentioned. 

On the whole, therefore, Mobile could live to itself, 
even in time of blockade. 

4. The Blockade. Ths war in America was fought 
out mainly in Canada, but hostilities were no^ lacking in 
the South. Communication with France was difficult in 
Bienville's time, and little money came through. Paper 
money (bons) was issued and soon drove out gold and 
silver, but the paper money soon became wort hless, because 
the king suspended its payment. 

There were plans for hostilities against Charleston, but 
the lack of means prevented anything definite. On the 



126 Under Five Flags 

other hand Mobile was constantly reminded that England 
was superior on the ocean, by suffering from her first block- 
ade. English ships lay outside the harbor in good 
weather and prevented French vessels from coming in or 
out. This was using early what was to become in later 
days a common act of naval warfare. To all intents and 
pui poses it closed up the new channel which was making by 
Mobik Point as effectually as the storm of 1717 had closed 
up that by Pelican Island. 

5. Governor and Intendant. The plan of having a 
military and a civil governor was kept up all through the 
French times. At first the military governor had ranked 
all other officers, as we saw in the time of Bienville and La 
Salle, but gradually the civil officer rose in rank, and, 
instead of garde magasin, we have seen him called coni- 
missaire, with greater powers. Law's Company had made 
little change in this respect, but, when the king took back 
the colony in 1732 and ruled it himseK, he put in force in 
Louisiana the plan of government which prevailed in 
Canada and in the French West Indian Islands. The 
military governor found power divided between himself 
and the intendant, who looked after the revenues of the 
colony. The two oiificials were almost always at enmity, 
and it was part of the plan to have them report on each 
other. The result of their hostility, however, was weak- 
. ness in the government as a whole. 

During the Seven Years War the governor was Kerlerec 
and the intendant Rochemore, and their enmity all but 
wrecked the colony. Everyone took sides either wiih the 
governor or the intendant. The intendant was shown to 
have enriched himself by illegal trade with the English 
and was sent back to France, but when he got there his 
friends had influence enough to have the governor recalled 
in his turn, and thrown into the great French prison 



The Seven Years War in the South 127 

called the Bastille. Kerlerec was finally released, but 
died of grief. 

6. The War in Canada. Beyond blockading 1 he mouths 
of the Mobile and ihe Mississippi Rivers ihe British 
attempted little in the South, but both the English govern- 
ment and the English colonies united in several .expedi- 
tions against Canada. The English had come to realize 
the danger of Iberville's plan of forming into one empire 
the French colonies on the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, 
for it would cut off the expansion of the British colonies, 
if not result in their extinction. At one time it had 
looked as if the plan could succeed, but to make it succeed 
the French colonists must outnumber the British whom 
they hemmed in. The French were the more aclive 
and controlled far more of the Indians, but in numbers 
they had by this time fallen behind the British. The 
French colonists in Louisiana and Canada together num- 
bered less than one hundred thousand, while the English 
in New England, the Middle Colonies and those on the 
South Atlaniic together amounted to a million and a half. 
Three wars had been necessary to bring the matter to a 
final issue. That of the Spanish Succession had won 
Acadia and Newfoundland for the English. In the War 
of the Austrian Succession Louisburg and Cape Breton 
had been lost to the French, but restored at the peace 
in 1748. Now in the Seven Years War the English had a 
leader in William Pitt, who was determined upon the 
final humiliation of France. Bienville was still living in 
Paris, a private citizen, and followed all war news with 
interest ; but he was an old man and could only act through 
his nephews, the sons of Serigny, who were in the navy. 

It was from Canada that the French had attempted to 
take possession of the Ohio Valley, and the English rightly 
judged that Canada was the heart of the French power in 



128 Under Five Flags 

America. There came, therefore, the expedition under 
Wolfe which in 1759 fought the great battle on the plains 
west of Quebec, where both Wolfe and Montcalm fell. 
This was followed by the surrender of Quebec. 

Governor Vaudreuil of Louisiana had become governor 
of Canada and was able to maintain himself for almost a 
year after the fall of Quebec. But the British gradually 
advanced up the St. Lawrence and compelled Vaudreuil at 
Montreal to surrender the whole of Canada to England 
on September 8, 1760. 

7. Southern Indians and the War. The fall of Fort 
Duquesne (Pittsburg) had released the French garrison 
for activity elsewhere. From this time we find them found- 
ing St. Louis, and from Vincsnnes and Fort Chartres 
stirring up the Cherokee Indians on the upper Tennessee 
River to hostilities upon the people of Virginia and Carolina. 
In this the commandant of Fort Toulouse actively co- 
operated, for he could influence the Lower Cherokees south 
of the mountains, while the others were reached from the 
Ohio Valley. Monberault was commandant of Fort 
Toulouse at this time and came to be much feared by the 
British. The afi"ection of the Indians for the French was 
remarkable and Kerlerec held several councils of 
war at Mobile, which tried to impress upon the French 
government the absolute necessity of providing for the 
Indians the usual presents. These now had been lacking 
for several years. Little could get through the blockade, 
but such was the address of the French that by promises 
and cordiality they retained the affections of the Indians, 
although the British were able and willing io supply them 
with presents at any time. The governor got together 
whatever he could and gave it freely, sometimes buying 
out the private stores at Mobile for this purpose. Perhaps 
the greatest blow which was struck by the French through 



The Seven Years War in the South 129 

the Indians was ihe siege and capture of Fort Loudon by 
the Cherokees on the upper Tennessee River. It was 
foolish for the British to build a fort over the mountains, 
far from any hope of relief, and even more foolish to ill- 
treat hostages in their hands and thus provoke the fury of 
the Cherokees; and this fact, coupled with the influence of 
the French on both sides of the mountains, led to the 
unique instance of a real siege of a fortified post by Indians. 
The garrison finally surrendered the fort and marched 
away, but were followed by the Cherokees and massacred 
almost io a man. One of the few who escaped was Captain 
John Stuart. 

8. Treaty of Paris. The war had been w^aged on the 
ocean and in Canada, but it was felt by both French and 
British that the treaty of peace must settle the whole 
American queslion. The French kmg, ther?tore, per- 
suaded his kinsman, the king of Spain, to accept a gift of 
so much of Louisiana as was west of the Misisssippi River 
and of Bayou Manchac, which led from the Mississippi 
inio the lakes east of New Orleans. This lett lor disposi- 
tion at Paris America from the Misaissippi River and the 
Lakes to the Allegheny Mourtaias, and after long nego- 
tiations at Paris the treaty signed February 10, 1763, gave 
all of this to Great Biitian. In the war Spain had aided 
France, and England had captured Cuba by an expedition 
led by Lord Albemarle. One of the noted engineers during 
this siege was a lieutenant, Elias Durnford, whom Albe- 
marle took occasion to thank in public. The treaty, 
however, retroceded Cuba (o Spain, and at the same time 
settled another old historical problem as to the relation 
ot Mobile and Pensacola; for Spain ceded Florida also to 
Great Britain. France had desired to keep the interior 
beyond the mountains for the Indians, but Great Britain 
wisely enough determined to settle the question for all 



130 Under Five Flags 

time, and thus possessed herself of 'he whole of America 
east of the Mississippi and Bayou Manchac. 

Cession 1o England was bitterly regretted in Louisiana 
and a deputation was sent to France to protesi ; but the 
prime minister did not even let them see the king. Royalty 
had enough 1o attend 1c in France itself, for it was the age 
of the Encyclopaedia, when Church and Stale were both 
attacked by brillia.it writers. The government was glad 
to be rid of American questions, and consented to being 
stripped of all America except a place for Norman fisher- 
men to dry their nets ofT Newfoundland, and except the 
French Islands in tlie West Indies. 

The French dream of crushing out the English on the 
Atlantic by a French empire on the Mississippi and the 
St. Lawience had come to an end, and instead of it the 
much more numerous English colonists on the Atlantic 
were to use the Mississippi Valley as a back country in 
which to expand. After the peace Pensacola was occupied 
and then on October 20, 1763, the French troops 
withdrew from Fort Conde and Highlanders under Col. 
Robertson entered to the music of bagpipes, and a royal 
salute greeted the British flag which broke to the breeze. 

The transfer was by a written paper signed by French 
officers on the side one and by Robert Farmar for England. 
The French troops withdrew to New Orleans, but most of 
the people remained, and made out as best ihey could the 
proclamation which Farmar issued, changing the name 
of the fort to "Charlotte" in honor of the young queen of 
England. Shortly afterwards British troops received 
possession of Forts Toulouse and Tombecbe, whose names 
also were changed, and the British flag waved over the 
whole southern country. 




BRITISH FLAG 

(Merchant) 



PERIOD IV. 

A BRITISH METROPOLIS 

1763-1780 



A UTHORITIES. 

Documents. Haldimand Papers (Ottawa); West Florida 
Records in Alabama Department of Archives, (from 
British Colonial Records.) 

Travels. James Adair American Indians (1775) ; Romans' 
Florida: Jeffreys' French Dominioji; Roberts' Florida; 
Bart ram's Travels (1793); Pittman, Mississippi Settle- 
ments. 

Histories. R. L. Campbell, Colonial Florida (1892) ; Von 
Eelking, Deutsche Htilfstruppen; Charles Gayarre, History 
of Louisiana; A. J. Pickett, History of Alabama. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE NEW GOVERNMENT. 

1. Fort Charlotte. The British flag waved over Fort 
CharloUe not so much as an amblem of conquest as repre- 
senting the greatest colonizing power Ihe world has ever 
seen. The three crosses in the corner showed EngHsh, 
Scotch and Irish laces united in one, and the new rulers 
went to work to win another peopls and to develop the 
countiy. 

They began with the fort itself and found great need of 
repairs. For the last two years the French had done 
very litlle to keep up the properly which they might not 
retain, and, while the brick outside remained, all the wood- 
work was old, glasses gone, bake-houses and hospital in 
bad order, and even the brick- work overgrown with grass. 
The French took away their cannon and the British 
brought their own, and between the two the wharf in front 
was broken down. As Fort CharloUe was the south- 
western stronghold, it was important that it be kept in good 
order, and so the British set to work to do what was neces- 
sary. Everything was repaired, including the palisade, 
which at this lime embraced only the square bounded 
north by Conti Street, and in this the British placed their 
officers' quarters. There were other rooms added and the 
interior arrangement was improved. Much of \he work 
was done by a Mobilian named Pierre Rochon, and he 
long remained the best known contractor in Mobile. The 
British workmen complained, but he did the best work 
and. got the best contracts. Maj. Farmar was chief in 
command and sometimes brought artisans out from New 
York. 



134 Under Five Flags 

2. A New Province. The Brilish government realized 
that the territory which they had acquired trom the French 
was too large and ill-connected to be governed as a whole. 
It was therefore divided by a royal proclamation ot October 
7, 1763, into two provinces, called East and West Florida, 
separated by the Chattahoochee River. The northern 
boundary might present some difficulty because the original 
charter of the colony of Georgia extended westward t o the 
South Sea, as the Pacific Ocean was then called. East 
Florida could go only to (he Georgia line, but about the 
Chattahoochee Georgia had no settlements. At first the 
northern line of the two provinces was fixed at thirty-one 
degrees, which will interest us frequently hereafter. Be- 
yond that li'ie the country was for the present reserved 
for the use of the Indians, but the northern boundary of 
West Florida was nexL year extended to a line running east 
and west from the mouth ot the Yazoo River. West 
Florida, therefore, was made up of much of the old French 
Department of Mobile with the mainland of Florida 
added on ihe south and the Natchez district added on the 
west. St. Augustine was made the capital of East Florida, 
and Mobile was the largest city in West Florida, but 
Pensacola became the capital. As the French s.ill 
retained New Orleans, despite the secret cession to the 
Spaniards, it became important for the British to fortify 
their west boimdary. This they did by establishing forts 
at Naichez and on Bayou Manchac, which they endeavored 
to clear of logs and make navigable from Lake Pontchar- 
train to the Mississippi River. This work was super- 
vised from Mobile, but never proved successful. The 
British took possession of the North West by an expedition 
under Maj. Farmar from Mobile, which ascended the Mis- 
sissippi River from its mouth. 



The New Government 



135 



3. Major Farmar. The first governor of West Florida 
was George Johnstone of the royal navy, but the man 
acting at Mobile was Major Robert Farmar. He was at 
this lime torty-five years old and gave great uneasiness to 
the French commandant at New Orleans. He was well 
educated, admired King Francis I and Emperor Charles 
V, and would in his correspondence quote Mon1esqui?u 
and the Magna Charta to 
the Frenchman. It was 
reported that he had been 
in the British Parliament 
and so troublesome to the 
government that they sent 
him to America to get rid 
of him. He superintended 
everything for the British 
in these parts, buying lands 
for public purposes, mak- 
ing contracts and paying 
troops. Farmar's Island 
north of the city was owned 
by him and he was the firs( 
resident on the TensaA\ 
Bluff, now called Stockton. 
In Mobile he lived at the 
northeast corner of St. 
Emaftuel and Government 

Streets, adjacent to the lands used under the French 
and also under the British for a royal bakery and other 
public purposes. 

4. Health Resorts. The French had long since become 
acclimaied at Mobile and found it as healthful as any- 
where. The British troops had a different tale to tell, tor 
they were brought from the West Indies and indulged on 




MAJ. ROBERT FARMAR 



136 Under Five Flags 

their arrival in all kinds of excesses. The result was great 
sickness among them. Even the officers and ship captains 
died. It amounted almost to an epidemic for several 
years. 

A new general-in-chief then came named Frederick 
Haldimand, and he set himself to work to change condi- 
tions. Fever in summer was the principal trouble. He 
had surgeons examine the matter and Dr. Lorimer speni 
much time studying the subject. Lorimer atlributed 
it to the dampness of the Fort , which was so near the water, 
and to the swamps about the town. The first thing 
done was to have the troops camp in summer at Red Bluff, 
which was renamed CrofLown. 

6. Business. Business at Mobile improved greatly in 
British times. A road was cut across the country from the 
Village to Pensacola, so thaL Mobile had the benefit of its 
own shipping and that which went to the capital also. The 
engineeer who laid this out was Elias Durnford, who some- 
what later had much to do with the survey which produced 
the first Admiralty Chart of Mobile Bay. A road was 
planned in the other direction towards Nalchez, which 
was gradually becoming a little town, and the Indian 
trade became of value once more. 

We know the names of a number of the British mer- 
chants. One was John McGillivray, whose kinsman had 
married Sehoy Marchand, and her son was a little boy 
named Alexander, in future to be famous. The firm of 
Swanson and McGillivray had branch houses in other 
places also. 

British courts were established. The governor acted 
as chancellor, and for collection of small debts there. was 
a Court of Requests. The justice of the peace had not 
yet assumed the importance of later times. Deeds now 
cease to be made out by the Notary and are documents 



The Neiv .Government 137 

signed and delivered by ihe seller io the vendee, and quile 
a number of them can still be found in the Probate Court. 
Among ihem are a series of papers relating to Lisloy, 
which was sold under a chancery foreclosure sale. 

There was a rector belonging to the Church of England, 
and he was also school teacher, paid by Ihe government; 
but the most of the people were still French, and the 
Catholic Church was maintained by the parish. Father 
Ferdinand, an Acadian refugee of the Capuchin order, 
remained as priest long into the English period. Gradually 
his handwriting as shown by the church entries becomes 
feeble and shaky, and at last it ceases altogether. The 
good man finished his earthly course and is buried some- 
where near the church to which he had so long ministered 
about the Theatre and St. Emanuel Streets of our day. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

THE INDIAN BOUNDARY LINE. 

1. The Indians. The Indians had become so attached 
to the French that (hey were quite uncertain what would be 
the effect of the change of flag. The British did not any 
longer need Fort Toulouse, and so they abondoned it, 
much to the disgust of the Muscogees around, and, while 
Tombecbe was maintained, its name was changed to York 
and its importance was much lessened. Indeed the 
official memorandum shows that it was maintained only 
to create disputes among the tribes and keep them from 
uniting to annoy the British. 

No higher tribute could be paid to the French than the 
fact tha^ the British had to turn to a Frenchman to help 
them influence the native tribes. Monberault we have 
seen as active while in command a1 Fort Toulouse. He 
was much loved by the Muscogees, but left that district, 
and after the change of flag was living quietly at his country 
home on Lisloy. From there it was he was called to help 
the new governors of the country arrange their relations 
with all the Indians of the interior. He was finally ap- 
pointed Deputy superintendent of Indian Affairs, being 
next to John Stuart, superintendent of Indian Affairs 
for the Southern Provinces, at a salary of <wo hundred and 
ten pounds a year, besides rent and some extras. 

2. The Treaty of Augusta. The British policy in regard 
to the Indians was different from the French. The French 
had regarded them as, equally with themselves, subjects 
of the French king, and built forts or towns at will without 
formal purchase from the Indians, who never disputed 
the right, for they were glad enough to have French posts. 
The Anglo-Saxons, on the other hand, have never mingled 



The Indian Boundary Line 139 

freely with races of a different color, ar.d one of the leading 
Virginians, Captain John Smith, had long since 
uttered the maxim, "The only good Indian is a dead 
Indian." The government did not adopt this in theory, 
but acted upon it in practice. When ihe British desired 
a site, whether for a city or a plantation, they either bought 
the land by treaty or seized and held it by war. The result 
was in the case of the British a well defined frontier, a line 
between the Indians and the colonists, sometimes pushed 
back for a time, but always in the long run advancing 
further and further to the west. Different treaties effected 
this, sometimes by purchase, sometimes at the close of 
a war. 

In the southern British colonies there are many such 
treaties, but the most famous was one held in 1763 at 
Augusta, Georgia. It was attended by the Chickasaws, 
Creeks, Cherokees and some Choctaws, and was designed 
to- settle the questions of trade and boundary following 
the close of the war with France. Augusta was not far 
from the Cofitachequi of De Soto's time, and present were 
British governors of Georgia, both Carolinas and of Vir- 
ginia, and also superintendent John Stuart. Stuart 
well knew the Indians, for he was one of the few who 
escaped from ill-fated Fort Loudon but a few years before. 
The line agreed on followed rivers and paths from the Savan- 
nah River across to the Atlantic and provided thai the 
government should license and oversee all traders who 
should come among the tribes. The frontier agreed on, 
therefore, did not touch anything in West Florida or the 
old Mobile territory. 

3. The Choctaws at Mobile. Monberault began his 
duties by securing the attendance of the Choctaws at a 
congress in Mobile and here we find for the first time 
the distinction between the three divisions of this tribe. 



140 Under Five Flags 

There was less difficulty in treating with the Great Divi- 
sion and the Six Towns who were in the north and west 
than with the Eastern District on the Tombigbee, who had 
been more closely in touch with the French. This con- 
gress was no doubt held at the Indian House on Conti 
and Conception, and there the Choctaws were fed for weeks 
at government expense. Stuart was unable to get enough 
food to satisfy them and Monberault helped him out from 
his supplies at Lisloy. At this congress Governor John- 
stone, superintendent Stuart and Monberault were present, 
and the last seems to have been the chief actor in securing 
the famous treaty of 1765. He showed the Indians, thai, 
while the French had been their best friends, the French 
had left the English in their stead, and he persuaded them 
to cede what land the English needed and receive in return 
the arms, clothing and other supplies which they required. 
This was done, and the cession agreed on secured to the 
British the large tract of land between the Chickasahay 
on the west and beyond the Tombigbee on the east, and 
extending from the coast up to the springs which we call 
Bladon. All three divisions finally agreed to this treaty 
and the chiefs surrendered their French medals and deco- 
rations and received in return medals from the British 
governor. 

4. Creek Treaiy. Monberault was even better known 
among the Muscogees and sent his son into their country 
to bring them down to Pensacola, where a congress was 
•held with them. The leader of the Creeks was called The 
Mortar, who was distrustful of the British, and it needed 
all of Monberault 's eloquence to show these Indians that 
they could not- get the ^uns; ammunition and supplies 
which they needed from anyone except the English. The 
'Indians feared the constant encroachment of the English, 
.but Monberault convinced them that it was necessary 



77?^ Ir,diaii Boundary Line 



141 





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/>. 


» 




/, /r ■ 


, ^ 






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/ Zi? ■ . « 


'* * 















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V 






142 Under Fivz Flags 

for the English to have grounds to till so that they could 
support themselves and secure the supplies which the 
Indians needed. 

Monberault fell sick, but a treaty was finally secured. 
The tract granted, however, was much less than that 
obtained from the Choctaws. In fact all that was 
granted by the Creeks was land south of the junction of the 
Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers and extending inland 
along the coast for twelve miles. The Indians wanted an 
article inserted that goods should be sold them on their 
rivers as cheaply as the traders sold them to the Chero- 
kees, and this the governor could not grant, because the 
provinces and their traders were independent. It was 
necessary for Monberault to be sent for, sick as he was, 
and he succeeded in persuading the Indians not to insist 
upon this provision. 

It is a pity to have to add that Governor Johnstone 
and Monberault fell out after this. Monberault thought 
his services were great, and, on the other hand, Johnstone, 
having secured what he wanted, soon dismissed him with 
anger and Monberault had to escape to New Orleans, 
leaving Lisloy to become the property of other owners. 

5. The Boundary. The boundary between (he British 
and the Choctaws and Creeks was thus well defined, 
although there is some uncert aint y now as to one point named 
in this treaty of 1765. The lina ran up the west side of the 
Bay and took in the Mobile delta, and thence up the Ala- 
bama River to the unknown "Chickianoce," then across to 
and up what we call Jackson Creek (Bance) and over to the 
Tombigbee River. It then went up thai river to Hatchatig- 
bee, and across to the Buckatunna, and down it to the 
sea coast which the British already had in possession. 
The upper few miles, however, were preserved as a neutral 
ground between the British and the Indians. 



The Indian Boundary Line 143 

The Creek boundary was much more limited and was 
meant to embrace only -the settled plantations. On the 
north it embraced the French settlement atTensawand did 
not extend further east than the lands around Pensacola 
Bay. The boundary fixed at Augusta, therefore, did not 
join that fixed at Pensacola. The Muscogees reserved the 
land which they owned from the Gulf up to their home 
places on the Alabama aad its sources. 

6. How the Boundary Was Run. Writing out the treaty 
was one thing and running the boundary was another. 
The treaties date from 1765, but the boundaries were not 
actually run for six years later. The reason was that 
it was necessary to secure not only the attendance of 
Superintendent Stuart , but work by a competent surveyor, 
and this was not possible in the unsettled condition of the 
province. Finally, however, watched by representa- 
tives of the Indian tribes, the line was run and every- 
thing settled. There was no question in the future as to 
the boundary of this part of the country between the whites 
and the Indians. The British policy was firmly fixed of 
acquiring lands from the Indians instead of settling amongst 
them, and the two treaties of 1765 mark the beginning of a 
practice which was to be continued by every succeeding 
government as long as any Indians remained in the South 
West . 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

A TRIP ON THE TOMBIGBEE RIVER. 

1. British Exploration. The British have always been 
practical, and this is as true in the matter of geography 
as in anything else. The supremacy of their navy has made 
coast survey of great importance, as we see in the case of 
Thomas Jeffreys even before Mobile was acquired from 
the French. They were also more persistent on land than 
the French, for after acquiring territory they faithfully 
explored it. Mobile they knew was the outlet from the 
extensive Alabama-Tombigbee River Basin, and they were 
not content with the maps platted by the French, but 
undertook gradually to map out the whole country and see 
what products could be derived from it. After they had 
run their boundary with the Choctaws, superintendent 
Stuart sent out Capl. Bernard Romans to explore the 
Indian country about the Tombigbee River and its sources. 
Romans was a captain in the army and faithfully execuied 
his commission. 

2. Picture Writings. Romans left Mobile on a Satur- 
day afternoon in September, 1771, accompanied by a 
party of Choctaw Indians and headed through the pine 
forest towards the west. He spent the first night at our 
Spring Hill and for several days was crossing or heading 
Dog River and other streams. Near the Pascagoula 
River he found a Choctaw "hieroglyphick," or picture- 
writing, showing that these Indians had killed and scalped 
nine Creeks. This was cut on a stone, and a few days 
later after passing the Buckatunna River he found another, 
this time a Creek picture-writing showing that warriors 
of the Stag family had there scalped two Choctaw men 
and two women and rowed off in triumph. He saw 



A Trip on the Tombigbee River 145 

another such picture later on the Tombigbee. The marks 
of the Indians were frequent, such as paths, fields, and 
camps, and occasionally a head stuck on a pole reminded 
him of the war then in progress between the Creeks and 
Choctaws. Soon after leaving Mobile they saw three 
graves. One of these was of a French soldier, one of a 
drunken savage and hence named Rum-Drinker's Hill, 
and the other of a trader named Brown, who had lived a 
good deal in the Choclaw and Chickasaw nations. At a 
Choctaw town Romans and his party put up at a house 
of the resident trader, Hewitt, and from there they went 
on until they reached Ben James' house at Chickasahay. 
3. Indian Wars. The British adopted a different Indian 
policy from the French. They no longer took sides 
with one nation against another, for their real plan was to 
let the Indians exterminate each other, and the govern- 
ment officers quietly encouraged the Indian tribes to fight. 
Shortly before Romans made his exploration there had 
been a civil war among the Choctaws themselves, and he 
saw many traces of it in the burned towns among the 
eastern division of the tribe, who lived near the Tombig- 
bee River. He was also witness to many warlike events 
in an existing war between the Choctaws and the Creeks. 
Not only did he see human heads stuck on poles, but at 
one place found the Choctaws exulting over a victory, and 
alter he reached the Tombigbee he almost ran into a Creek 
ambush. This war party had a fire of hickory bark, 
which makes little smoke, and put it out when they saw 
the party of white people approaching. Romans and his 
fiiends ha.d off their hats as well as their goats, for the day 
was warm, but, to show that they were whites and not 
bareheaded Irdians, they quickly put their hats on again, 
and thus avoided being fired upon. Frequently they came 
upon bark rafts left by the Indians after some expedition. 



146 Under Five Flags 

and more than once an Indian canoe was of great help 
to ihem. 

The seat of war was about the mouth of the Noxubee 
River, and there ihe while party exercised special caution. 
Even when they slept at night they built a big fire and put 
their hats on high poles round about. The Indians 
were not always hostile. The river ran through Choctaw 
territory, and where Creeks had not invaded Romans found 
the Choctaws friendly enough, and bought supplies from 
them at different timas. Once he accidently left a silver 
spoon and tried to get the Indians to go back for it, and 
learned that they would have been willing to do this if it 
had been lead or pewter, for then, if the reward was not 
paid, the Indians could have melted it into bullets; but 
silver had no attractions, as it was too hard for them to 
use. They called silver the "white stone," but so useful 
was lead that their name for it was the "fat of the earth." 

4. Among the Chickasaws. Romans went through 
Choctaw country, visiting Yoani and making Hewitt's 
home his headquarters, but he soon proceeded further 
northward and crossed the Noxubee and Octibbeha Rivers 
on the way. Octibbeha is Choctaw for Fighting Water, 
and was so named because it was the boundary between the 
Choctaws and Chickasaws, who were so frequently at 
war. The Indian commissary took away Romans' 
horse and does not seem to have been as polite generally 
as the Choctaw agents. Finally they reached the Tom- 
bigbee about Town Creek, and there got beavers for food. 
They lived throughout the trip by hunting birds and other 
game. They embarked on the water at Town Creek, 
which in Chickasaw bore the name of White Man's Trouble. 
This was in the neighborhood of Bienville's defeat years 
before and the name may refer to that event, and it was 
in this country that De Soto also spent a troubled winter. 



A Trip OH the Tomhighee River 



147 



5. Bluffs and Bars. Romans wiih his guide Dow and a 
while servant proceeded down the river in a canoe, a.nd a 
voyage of a month and six days brought them finally to 
Mobile. On the w^ay he made a careful study of river 
bluffs, bars, and other natural features, many of which 
can still be identi- 
fied from his des- 
cription. The 
second day he saw 
an Indian trading 
house on a bluff 
and near there 
Romans had the 
misfortune to have 
his gun jerked from 
him by a snag, and 
it then sank in deep 
water. Octibbeha 
he mentions again, 
the Nashebaw, 
which is Sipsey 
River, and the 
Noxubee. T h e 
abandoned French 
fort Tombecbe on 
its high, steep bank 
of chalky stone 
Romans visited 
and sketched. To 

the creek which there empties into the river he gives 
the Indian name of Ectomboguebe, translating it as 
Crooked Creek, while others translate it as Tom's Creek. 
Below the mouth of the Tuscaloosa he saw a chalky bluff 
called Chickasaw Gallery, where these savages used to 




SKAL OF WEST FLORIDA 
(French Sou at Sides) 



148 Under Five Flags 

fire on the French boats. The country he describes 
as very fine, yielding to the Indians sixty and eighty 
bushels of corn per acre, and growing horses, hogs and 
game plentifully. This is what we now call the Black 
Belt. Below were the remains of villages abandoned 
by the Alibamons, who followed the French westward 
after the treaty of Paris. Nana Falaya Hills, Tuscahoma, 
Hatchetigbee, Sentibogue, and other familiar names he 
mentions, as well as Three Rivers, Naniabea, and places 
easily recognized still on the lower Tombigbee River. 

6. A Christian Roof. He noticed that the tide ran high 
up the river and was informed ihal it reached' some miles 
above what we call Carney's Bluff. We know that 
some time in the French period Drapeau lived at the mouth 
of the Okelousa, and Romans found many settlers on the 
river, SQme with British names and others French. Favra's 
he mentions as the first Christian habitation which he had 
been in since September, and he had reason io be glad of 
it, for that night there came on a prodigious storm of wind 
and rain, which he weathered out under a good roof. From 
there on down to Mobile he saw frequent plantations on 
the western bluffs, amongst which he mentions Chastang's, 
which stood on a high horse-shoe commanding views up 
and down. Lower he found the ruins of the first French 
settlement, and soon saw the plantation of Mr. Lizard, 
for whom the creak opposite is named. This was an old 
settlement made by a French commandant and after- 
wards owned by the celebrated Grondel. After Romans' 
trip. Lizard was murdered and the plantation passed into 
the hands of the Mobile merchant McGillivray. The 
trip ended on January 19, 1772, — the first detailed explora- 
tion of the Tombigbee River. 

7. Summary. The French used the Tombigbee a great 
deal and were familiar with it, but left no maps of the 



A Trip on the Tombigbee River 149 




BRITISH ADMIRALTY CHART, 1771 



150 Under Five Flags 

country which it drains. The exploration by Romans, 
therefore, was much needed and was well done. He 
notes that the upper river ran through clay soils and the 
lower through sands and pine hills. Canes were common 
only below Mcintosh Bluff, and there the pine barrens 
first came to the river's edge. He made Superintendent 
Stuart a present of a can<|)e measuring forty-seven feet 
above the third joint. The joints were twenty inches 
long and five inches around, and he met with other canes 
as large. He not only mentions deserted Indian villages, 
as of the Wetumpkees at what we call Carney's Bluff, and 
French plantations, which were mainly on the islands 
in the delta, but he looks forward to the future. He 
noted that just below the last rapids, later to be known as 
McGrew's Shoals, where the Indians had a trail across the 
river, there was a remarkable bluff on the west bank fifly 
feet high. Sloops and schooners could come up to these 
rapids and he predicted that a large settlement would be 
made here. This did not come at once, but here was 
founded at a later period the famous town and Fort of St. 
Stephen. Even at this time he met some of the settlers 
who were making the lower Tombigbee a real British 
colony. Below Carney's Bluff he visited Thomas Baskett, 
a well known citizen, who had with him several hunters, 
and what we know as Bassett's Creek was once called 
Baskett's from this Erglishman. We know also (hat 
about this time an Englishman named Sunflower had a 
plantation upon that great bend of the Tombigbee River 
which has ever since borne his name, and, although Romans 
did not notice il, at this time the Indian interpreter James 
Mcintosh was living on the bluff named for him, and there 
was a little baby there, his grandson, who was afterwards 
celebrated as George Mcintosh Troup, governor of Georgia. 



CHAPTER XIX. 
THE JOURNEYS OF A BOTANIST. 

1. William Bartram. The military authorities explored 
the Tombigbee and the Indian country to the west, and 
live years later the country east of the Alabama River was 
visited by a man in civil life with a very different object in 
view. In Philadelphia at this time lived a well known 
botanist named John Bartram, who had established the 
earliss'. botanical garden in America, and a London doctor 
became interested with him in finding out what new herbs 
and medicines British Florida could produce. This Dr. 
Fothergill, despite the troubled state of public affairs, 
arranged w^ith Bartram's son William to explore the lower 
South, and on the errand the younger Bartram spent 
several years. In this way we come to know the Creek 
country on the east as well as Romans has taught us to 
know that of the Choclaws on the west. 

2. Mobile. Bartram was in Charleston and peninsula 
Florida from 1773 on and finally went westward from 
Georgia by way of Tahse on Tallapoosa River. He 
mentions the Schambe (Escambia) River ?s draining a 
dark and bloody border ground between the Indians, 
and finally reached Taensa Bluff, on what we call the 
Tensaw River, thirty miles above Mobile. Major Farmar 
then lived there on the site of the old Indian town of Ten- 
saw, marked by mounds of earth which afforded a spacious 
prospect over the river delta. Up to this point Bartram 
had traveled overland, sometimes with Indian Iraders, 
bu' here he look boat for the city. Like Romans he found 
islands of the delta laid out in plantations owned by 
Frenchmen. Mobile was on rising ground, extending a 
half mile back from the river. At this time the towTi was 



152 Under Five Flags 

not flourishing, but there were some good buildings, in- 
habited by Frenchmen, EngUsh, Scotch and Irish, as well 
as by people from the northern colonies. Swanson & 
McGillivray were the great Indian trading house of that 
day, and had extensive buildings. We do not know 
exactly where these were, but they were near the river, for 
that was the main thoroughfare of the time, and they 
could not have been far from the King's Wharf in front of 
the Fort, for there was no other wharf in use. Fort Conde 
Bartram described as in good order, and the French 
houses in town were of brick, one-story high and enclosing 
a large courtyard, with the principal room on the side 
fronting the street. This arrangement of a house built 
around a court was the usual one in France and continental 
countries. The poorer classes, however, were content 
with cypress frame houses filled in with brick, plastered and 
whitewashed inside and out. Bartram was at Mobile in 
July and experienced the hot weather and thunder storms 
which sometimes mark that period. 

S. New Medicines We remember how the French had 
found strange plants and made new drugs, and Bartram to 
some extent went over the same ground. He sailed back 
in a trading boat to visit Major Farmar at Taensa and the 
major loaned him a boat and a negro to explore the water 
courses. Bartram notes particularly the wax myrtle, 
which afforded a scale harder than beeswax and made 
candles which burned longer. There were no bees in the 
colony, except one hive in Mobile lately brought from 
Europe, although they abounded on the Atlantic. The 
evening primrose he thought to be the most brilliant plant 
that exists, with its daily succession of hundreds of petals, 
each over five inches. Canes and cypress he found very 
large, and peaches and dark purple figs astonished him. 
He went into raptures over the star anise, the cucumber 



The Journeys of a Botanist. 153 

tree, the buckeye, youpon, woodbine, gum elastic, great 
water lilies and many other plants. Corn and potatoes he 
found cultivated near the site of the first Fort Louis, on 
which the river was even then encroaching, and indeed on 
many bluffs he found deserted plantations and ancient 
Indian villages, for the country did not appear to be 
thriving. But finally Bartram had an attack of fever, 
and he put some of his new medicines in use. He went 
thirty miles to get some citronella tea, prepared by steeping 
the tops in boiling water, and drank it at breakfast. 

4. The Coast. Bartram also explored the coast. He 
made a side trip to Pensacola, having some experience 
with mosquitoes on the way, and there met Governor 
Chester and other officials. At last he sailed from Mobile 
in a French boat for Pearl River, stopping on shore at 
nights. About Dog River he saw three vast iron pots of 
many hundred gallons used to boil tar to pitch, for naval 
stores were quite an industry under the British. He had 
not got over his fever and finally had to land on the Sound 
for treatment. A fly plaster between his shoulders, however, 
cured him. He slept twenty-four hours and when he awoke 
he says he thought he was in Heaven. 

5. The Indians. We learn much of the Creek Indians 
from Bartram, for he visited them going and coming. 
He gives a list of the towns of Indians upon the Coosa and 
Tallapoosa, as well as those upon the Chattahoochee 
River, and we see that there had been little change even 
since De Soto's time. Many of the names are practically 
the same in the Spanish and French books as well as in 
Bartram's book. During his westward trip he also saw 
a village called Alabama, for the Indians who had been on 
the river of that name had followed the French when they 
left. At this time they lived two miles above the wooden 
bridge which spanned Bayou Manchac, the boundary 



154 Under Five Flags 

between the British and Spanish colonies. The British 
had a fori at one end of the bridge and the Spaniards had 
a fort at the other end, for they were suspicious of each 
other. 

6. Bar train's Return. Bartram came back to Mobile 
and made up his collections of roots and seeds and other 
specimens for shipment by sea to Dr. Fothergill at London, 
while he himself returned to Charleston with a caravan of 
Indian traders. Even on the way back the observant 
botanist discovered a kind of pecan and a yam which 
bears fruit amongst leaves two feet above the ground. 
He kept notes of his trip and they were published in book 
form in Philadelphia and at Dublin after the Revolutionary 
War. It is remarkable that the book says nothing about 
that war, which was then in progress, and that he had no 
difficulty getting from Charleston to the North. It is 
interesting to note that his father's botanical garden 
continued to grow in value and that it was finally bought 
for the city of Philadelphia. 



CHAPTER XX. 

COLONIAL POLITICS. 

1. The Early Governors. Under the French there had 
been little distinction between the military officers and the 
civil officials. Self-government however, had always been 
a British institution and was carried over into all the 
American colonies. West Florida had a governor who 
looked after civil affairs, while military matters were 
controlled by the commander-in-chiefof thetroops stationed 
in the different forts. The first governor was George 
Johnstone, who had been a naval officer. He was an 
active but rather fiery man, who by proclamation gave a 
glowing description of West Florida to draw settlers, 
and on the other hand in his zeal quarrelled with the military. 
The government, however, w^as not merely by the governor, 
for as in all British colonies there was a legislature, called 
a General Assembly, of which the lower house was called 
the House of Commons, elected by all men who owaed 
property. The second governor died on his way over 
from England and the third was Mont fort Browne, who 
proved to be even more quarrelsome than Johnstone. 
He had a number of duels and was finally removed from 
office. He was succeeded by Elias Durnford, the official 
surveyor of the province, and an excellent man. The 
next governor was Peter Chester, who is the best known 
of them all. The capital of the province was Pensacola 
and Chester lived in the country nearby, keeping up a 
good deal of style. He was a firm man, but belo\ed l)y 
even those who opposed him. 

2. The Military. As New Orbans and Louisiana west 
of the Mississippi were retained by France and afterwards 
held by the Spanish, it was important to put liie military 



156 



Under Five Flags 



in West Florida on a strong footing. Besides Fort Char- 
lotte at Mobile, as Fort Conde was now called, a fort was 
built on Pensacola Bay around which grew up the new 
town of that name, and three other forts were built on the 
Mississippi River for the protection of that quarter. The 
commander in chief at first was Major Robert Farmar, 
who afterwards underwent a court martial, but was ac- 
quitted and lived on the Tensaw River. The most famous 
of the soldiers in command of West Florida was Frederick 
Haldimand, a French Swiss in the British employ. He 




BRITISH CANNON (BIENVILLE SQUARE) 

reported direct to General Gage in Boston and was promin- 
ent during the early part of the American Revolutionary 
War. Haldimand got on well in this old French province 
and the papers which he left behind give a great deal of 
information about his times. When Haldimand was 
sent away General Campbell succeeded him at Pensacola, 
3. Land Grants. The upper branch of the legisla- 
ture was called the Governor's Council, and it had the 
power ot granting public lands. The French had not been 
systematic in their grants, but the British were. A man 
asked fo^ so many acres and after it was surveyed the 



Colonial Politics. 157 

grant, signed by the governor, was recorded and given 
him. Land was granted to settlers and also to soldiers 
in order to attract them to West Florida. A private 
soldier received so many acres and officers received more. 
Now as in French times the land granted faced a river, 
creek or bay, because there were few roads and water 
was the means of going about. We find some granis 
up on the Tombigbee, mainly on the west side. 

4. Religion. The French were still in the majority 
in Mobile and of course attended their own church not 
far from the present Christ Church, where Father Ferdin- 
and was their priest. England, however, was Protestant 
and had its own church, and this was now the official church 
of the province. There was therefore an English rector 
and church, attended by British officers and residents. 
We do not know exacty where this building was. The 
pastor for a long time was Rev. William Gordon and he 
also conducted the first English school in Mobile. 

•5. Legislature. The Council was appointed by the 
British government but the local House of Commons 
was elected at meetings held by the sheriff. There came 
to be in time four election districts. One was Pensacola, 
another Mobile, which was the largest city in the province, 
and after a while Natchez on the Mississippi, and Camp- 
belltown near Pensacola. There weie a number of ses- 
sions of the Legislature and the laws of the province show 
a great deal of care. They covered all the needs of the 
colony, but particularly relate to the Indian trade, to public 
roads, to taxes and the church matters. They were 
approved by the governor, but could be made void by the 
King's Council in England. One of the laws made void 
was to establish a separate court for Mobile. 

6. Disfranchising Mobile. Governor Chester once wrote 
home to the British government that the Mobile merchants 



158 Under Five Flags 

did not want a legislature and Mobile members did not 
attend the legislature when it met, because the Mobile 
merchants wanted no trade regulation for fear it would 
prevent selling liquor to the Indians. There arose a dis- 
pute with the governor because Mobile voters wanted a 
legislature elected every year, so as to have it responsible 
to the people. Once when the election was held they made 
the sheriff put on the election paper which they signed 
that the members were chosen for only one year. Gover- 
nor Chester considered this treason and the home govern- 
ment thought the same, and, therefore, would not permit 
Mobile to have any vote at all. The legislature took up 
for Mobile, however, and declined to hold any session, 
and Governor Chester had to get along the best he could 
without a legislature. While West Florida had not up to 
this time taken any part in what we call the Revolutionary 
War, not much was now needed to fan discontent into 
revolution, and Mobile was the leader despite danger of 
invasion by the Spaniards in the west. And the leaders 
were not of the old French stock, who might have been 
deemed discontented, but the English and Scotch mer- 
chants, who were drilling in the militia to meet the Span- 
iards if they came. The French from the time of Louis 
XIV obeyed the government, whatever it might be, but 
the British from the time of Charles I were restless when- 
ever they thought their political rights in danger. And 
this was the case at Mobile; but there suddenly came a 
more pressing danger. 




SPANISH FLAG 

(Eighteenth Century) 



! 



PERIOD V. 

OLD SPANISH TOWN 

1780-1813 



A UTHORITIES. 

Documents. White, New Recopilacion, 1839; American 
State Papers, Public Lands, particularly Vols. Ill and V; 
Translated Records and Original Records Mobile Probate 
Court; Wills, Deeds and other papers in Mobile Probate 
Court; Suits as to John Forbes and Company in Mobile 
Chancery Records. 

Travels. Andrew Ellicott, Journal of Surveying the 
Line; Lorenzo Dow, Works, 1849. 

Histories. Charles Gayarre, History of Louisiana, Vol. 
IV; Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History; J. W. 
Monette, Valley of the Mississippi; P. J. Hamilton, Coloni- 
zation of the South, and Colonial Mobile, (1897 and 1911); 
W. A. Bowles, Life; H. B. Fuller, Purchase of Florida, 
1906; F. W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the South- 
west, 1891; R. L. Campbell, Colonial Florida, 1892; J. G. 
Jones, Prot^estantism in the Southwest, 1866. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



A LATIN GOVERNMENT. 



1. Captured by the Spaniards. When France ceded the 
Mobile country to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris, 
she also ceded to Spain New Orleans and. Louisiana west of 
the Mississippi. The 
French remained in control 
there for some time, but 
finally the Spaniards took 
possession, and, when the 
Creoles attempted a revo- 
lution, it was cruelly put 
down. Spanish rule, how- 
ever, gradually became 
mild. France was the ally 
of the British colonies in 
their war with the mother 
country, but, while Spain 
showed sympathy, she nev- 
er allied herself with the 
American colonists. The 
go\'ernments of British 
West Florida and Spanish 
Louisiana were never cor- 
dial, .and. each had plans 
to conquer the other at the 
first chance; and a young 

Spanish governor named Bernardo Cialvez found his chance 
when Spain declared war on England in 1779. He organ- 
ized an expedition which captured the British posts at 
Manchac and Natchez, and then sailed for Mobile. He 
landed in the Bay, marched across to the rear of the town, 




GALVEZ 



162 Under Five Flags 

and bombarded the fort from the northwest. A good deal 
of the town itself was burned, and Durnford, not receiving 
aid from General Campbell of Pensacola, was forced to 
surrender Fort Charlotte. Campbell finally marched for 
Mobile, but too late, and the Spaniards defeated the 
British near the Eastern Shore and built what came to be 
known as Spanish Fort. The flag with the emblems of 
the castle and the lion, had returned, and now meant a 
firmer hold and a more lasting rule than in the time of De 
Soto. 

2. The Government. At first Galvez imposed martial 
law, but, after Pensacola had been captured also and Great 
Britain in 1782 ceded West Florida to Spain, the usual 
Spanish civil rule was introduced. 

While Galvez was governor general at New Orleans, 
West Florida had its own governor, who looked after 
military affairs, and an intendant who looked after revenues 
and civil matters. At Mobile the commandant had both 
military and civil duties, and. enjoyed a number of titles 
showing his different offices. The official who was closest 
in touch with the life of the people was a judge called the 
alcalde, corresponding to the American justice of the 
peace, but having wider powers. There was one at Mobile, 
another on the Tensaw, and still others in different places. 
The alcalde decided most of the law suits, and there was 
an appeal from him to the commandant. The command- 
ant was somewhat like a probate judge in the case of death. 
He took charge of the dead man's property and sealed 
it up, until it was sold to pay debts, much as was the 
custom under the French. 

Under these commandants no political activity was 
allowed, such as that smouldering when the Spanish 
invasion came, but there was no occasion for it. Many 
of the British merchants retired with the British army, 



A Latin Government 163 

and those who remained with the more numerous French 
reconciled ^themselves to a government which sought the 
welfare of the people, although it did not encourage that 
private activity on which in the long run their true wefare 
must depend. 

3. The Commandants. There were about a dozen com- 
mandants at Mobile during the Spanish times and some 
of them were men of fine character. One of the best 
known was Folch, who became intendant of the province 
afterwards. Possibly the best loved, were Lanzos and 
Osorno, who came later. The last was to be Perez, who 
lived in Mobile also in American times. The square north 
of the fort esplanade, that is to say, bounded by St. Emanuel 
Conti, Royal and Government Streets, had been ever since 
its enclosure by the French really part of the fort itself. 
Here were the officers' quarters in French times, and here 
in Spanish times the commandant lived. Lanzos' resi- 
dence was the norteast corner of St. Emanuel and Governr 
ment Streets, facing on the parade ground and its little 
park, which surrounded the fort. He did not live in the 
present building, but in a brick residence, with wide gal- 
leries in front, farther back in the lot. 

An officer of almost as great importance was Miguel 
Eslava, who was royal treasurer and at the same time the 
commissary, who supplied the food for the troops and looked 
after repairs on all public property. He lived in the square 
south of the fort enclosure, on a hill overlooking the river. 
The lot was surrounded by high pickets and the house 
itself was built of materials brought over from Spain. 
It was near the site where Bienville lived in the early days 
of Mobile. 

4. Spanish Records. The government made grants of 
land on easy terms, for it wished the increase and prosperity 
of the people. The form was different from that in English 



164 . Under Five Flags 

times, when the Council heard appHcants and made grants. 
Now the person wishing lands, made written application to 
the commandant of Mobile, giving a description, and the 
commandant added a. note whether the land was vacant 
and the applicant worthy; and finally the intendant made 
a formal grant, with a direction to the surveyor to put the 
applicant in possession. Sometimes when there was no 
intendant the governor or even the commandant would 
make the grant. Deeds between private citizens were in 
much the same form as under the French, for the notary 
now also drew up all agreements as made befo rehim, and 
the parties signed in his presence. Often the commandant 
acted as notary too. All government proceedings were in 
writing, the entry of one officer being written after that of 
another in a little blank book, sewed together, the whole 
making a complete record. This was done if the fort had 
to be repaired, a deed made, property divided, or a suit 
tried between citizens, and hundreds of these little books, 
neatly folded in packages, are still preserved in the Mobile 
Probate Court. They are hard to read because the writing 
and the words are antique, but from them can be made 
out much of the history and customs of the times. 

5. American Adventures. The bulk of the population 
was still French and the Spaniards were only the ruling 
class. As no more French or Spaniards came, however, 
the growth of the population gradually came to be from 
the Americans. One of them was Josiah Blakely of 
Connecticut, who lived on Royal Street opposite the Catho- 
lic Church, and gradually became owner of much land. 
He wrote a charming letter back to his old home people 
about his new home and about Blakely Island, opposite 
Mobile, one of his- possessions. Another was William E. 
Kennedy, a doctor from Georgia, who became probably 
the greatest land owner of all. His largest purchase was 



A Latin Government 165 

of the 1,100 acres granted Thomas Price for back salary. 
His brother, Joshua Kennedy, followed him later and had a 
saw mill near the present Stockton. John Murrell was 
blacksmith and mason, and among later comers was Samuel 
H. Garrow. All Americans did not become Catholics, 
but they were Spanish citizens and often by marriage they 
became allied to the Creole families of Mobile. 
■ 6. Land Gray,ts. The Spanish land grants are of 
special interest to us because on them are founded the 
titles in the present city and in much of the surrounding 
country. They were generally of 20 acres (arpens) front 
on a watercourse by forty deep. There are some twenty- 
one grants in the present limits of the city of Mobile, and 
many more than this on Mobile and Tensaw Rivers, and 
on the Bay. Some, like Farmar's Island above Mobile, 
the Orange Grove next south, and the Fisher Tract near 
by, are really British grants, but they were confirmed by 
the Spaniards to the British claimants. The St. Louis 
Tract north of Three Mile Creek and the Mandeville 
Tract on the Bay date even further back, for they are 
French grants. The main city was north of the fort, and 
extended from Government to St. Louis Street and was 
bounded west by Joachim. 

Its streets and lots ran from the boundaries of the 
town to the esplanade. The Spaniards made grants very 
close to the fort, such as to McVoy Tract west of it and 
Collell south of it, besides letting Espejo build a wharf 
north of the royal wharf and giving him the marsh land 
west up to Royal Street. In fact the whole river margin 
was gradually reclaimed and parcelled out by the intend- 
ants. South of the city large plantations were granted to 
Favre and Bernoudy, which became tracts bearing these 
names, while the tract at Choctaw Point on the south as well 
the Orange Grove on the north became th eproperty of 



166 



Under Five Flags 



John Forbes & Co. The foresight of Forbes may be seen 
in the fact that these two last grants have become the centre 
of much of the railroad and cotton industry of the present 
city. The largest tract of land is called the Price Claim, 
made up of two grants to the Indian interpreter in payment 




SPANISH LAND GRANTS 

of his salary, and bought from him by William E. Ken- 
nedy. The principal residence portion of Mobile is now 
situated within its limits. Further west Antonio Espejo 
obtained a grant facing on Three Mile Creek and west of 
him came DuBroca, where the present Convent is, and 



A Latin Government 167 

Murrell had a tract next west. Spring Hill is also a Spanish 
grant. Eslava got a grant on the Bay and also built a 
mill southwest of the city, which was the basis of his claim 
to the largest claim of all, the Eslava Mill Tract. There 
was to be much question about this, as about a great 
many farther away from the city. Dozens of grants could 
be named, including even the site of Old Fort Louis at 
Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff. Indeed, no favorable location 
on the rivers or Bay was without a Spanish grant, and the 
same was true along the coast and at Pensacola. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

ELLICOTTS LINE. 

1 . Pinckney^s Treaty. The independence of the United 
States had been recognized by Great Britain in the Treaty 
of Paris of 1782. These states all faced the Atlantic Ocean, 
but Kentucky and Tennessee were soon added on the west 
from land given by Virginia and North Carolina. This 
was the beginning of the movement of people to the country 
west of the AUeghenies. A trade sprang up between these 
western settlements and the Spaniards on the Mississippi 
River and it became important to define the boundary 
between the United States and Spanish Florida. Great 
Britain had recognized the line of 31 degrees North Lati- 
tude, but Spain claimed thai by her earlier conquest from 
Great Britain she owned up to a line passing near Vicks- 
burg. During troubles in Spain growing out of the French 
Revolution, however, the American Ambassador Pinckney 
was able to get Spain to agree to the line of thirty-one de- 
grees. 

2. Fort St. Stephen. The forts up the rivers had been 
of no great use since the French times because one nation 
now claimed the whole territory. Toulouse had been 
completely abandoned, but the Spaniards used Tombecbe 
sometimes under the new name of Fort Confederation. 
The real seat of Spanish influence among the Indians was 
a fort which they had built below the rapids of which 
Bartram spoke as the place for a considerable settlement. 
There on a steep blulT, fifty feel above the river, was a 
square earthwork, with cannon commanding the river 
and the neighboring country. They named it Fort St. 
Stephen and nearby grew up a small settlement, which was 
often visited by the Choctaws. We have still records of 



EllicoU^s Line 



169 



the grant of tracts of land on the river above and below the 
fort, showing that the neighborhood was well settled and 
prosperous. Now, however, the Spaniards found to their 
regret that this St. Stephen district was above the line of 
31 degrees and must be given up to the Americans. 




ELLICOTT STONE 



3. Running the Line. The Americans had difiicully 
getting the colonial officers to run this boundary, for it 
would leave Natchez also on the American side and the 
Spaniards were reluctant to give it up. Finally the 



170 Under Five Flags 

Americans sent Andrew Ellicolt, a Quaker surveyor, and 
he and Sir William Dunbar for the Spaniards began run- 
ning the line in 1798. Ellicott came 1o Mobile and went 
up the river, and has published his Journal, showing 
how he located the line and placed on a hill the stone which 
has ever since been known as Ellicott's Stone. On both 
sides it has "Lat. 31 degrees, 1799," and it has from that 
lime been a famous mark in surveying. It was especially 
hard to get the line across the swamps and rivers to the 
eastern shore near Tensaw, but he managed to do this by 
means of fire and smoke signals agreed upon. The line 
had been thus brought from the Mississippi to the Mobile 
River and Ellicott carried it on the Chattahoochee River, 
and with a slight change in its direction from there to the 
Atlantic Ocean. He had some difficulty with the Creek 
Indians east of the Mobile River, for they did not under- 
stand what right either the Spaniards or the Americans had 
lo run a boundary line through their woods. 

4. The American Occupation. As soon as it was learned 
that Fort Si. Stephen was on the American side, troops 
from Natchez cut their way through the pine forests to 
that point, and shortly afier their arrival the Spanish 
commandant withdrew down the river to Mobile. While 
it was not then realized, this was the beginning of the 
Spanish retreat before the Americans which has lasted 
until our own day. McClarey occupied thi fort and the 
descendants of the old British settlers found themselves 
under the rule of an English-speaking race again. Many 
of them were of Tory stock, their fathers having been 
loyalists who had fled or had been driven from Georgia 
during (he Revolution. 

5. The Louisiana Purchase. It was supposed that a 
fixed line had been drawn between the American and Span- 
ish possessions, but when Napoleon became supreme in 



EllicoWs Line 171 

Europe he forced Spain in 1800 to cede to France the 
province of Louisiana. This not only caused questions 
as to how far that province extended, but the United 
States were not wilHng to have so powerful a neighbor as 
France at the mouth of the Mississippi River. As a result 
President Jefferson negotiated for the purchase of New 
Orleans, and Napoleon, being on the point of a war with 
England and needing money, finally offered to sell the whole 
province for fifteen million dollars. The offer was accepted 
in 1803 and French officers received the province from Spain 
by running up the French flag at New Orleans, and a few 
days later they turned it over to the Americans, who ran 
up the flag of the United States over the Cabildo, or gov- 
ernment house. The importance of this to the Mobile 
country lay in the fact that the United States insisted that 
Spain in 1800 had ceded to France and France in 1803 had 
ceded to the United States all territory east to the Perdido 
River and therefore including Mobile. The wording of 
the treaties was not clear, but the United States from now 
on always claimed that Mobile was American. On the 
other hand, Spain insisted that Florida south of thirty- 
one degrees was not part of Louisiana and remained 
Spanish as before, and Spanish officials continued in the 
discharge of their duties at Mobile. In point of fact 
the United States tacitly admitted the Spanish claim by 
not taking any steps to occupy Mobile. The point became 
important later, however, in regard to the grants of land 
made by the Spanish officers after the date of the Spanish 
cession to France. If Mobile was French, the Spaniards 
had no right to make grants of land to anyone. If Mobile 
was Spanish, of course all such grants were good. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

CHURCH OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. 

1. Church Organization. During Spanish times the 
province of West Florida like the province of Louisiana 
was in church matters subject to the Bishop of Santiago 
in Cuba, but the bishop was so far away that tha American 
provinces were almost independent. One difficulty arose 
from the mixture of the races and the gradual incoming 
of Protestant Americans. A bishop had to issue letters 
calling tor the better observance of Sunday and oi.hsrs 
relating to other duties. There were some thirteen pastors 
at Mobile, and their records are still preserved in the 
Cathedral. The name of the church was changed from 
that in French times, when it had been Notre Dame of 
Mobile. Under the Spaniards it was known as the Church 
of the Immaculate Conception, and the street on which 
the church stood was named Conception from it. At first 
the old French building a block south of modern Christ 
Church was used and the same cemetery, called sometimes 
Campo Santo, was used. There Grimarest when command- 
ant erected a handsome brick vault as a family tomb. 
Later Louisiana and Florida were combined into one 
diocese, and separated from Cuba, in order to improve the 
religion of the people. The first bishop was Penal ver, and 
he sometimes visited Mobile. After the cession of Louis- 
iana to France in 1800 another bishop was appointed, and 
when Louisiana became American it again became a part 
of the see of Havana. The church registers show the same 
care as to marriages and deaths as under the French, 
and from now on there is more and more mention of free 
negroes, some of whom themselves owned negro 
slaves. 



Church of the Immaculate Conception. 173 

2. The Church Building. The church, however, was 
even then in a ruinous state and during the time of the 
Irish priest McKenna it was rebuilt, and the parsonage 
placed next 1o it at the northwest corner of Conii and 
Royal Streets. The Spanish King, by agreement with the 
Pope, was entitled to the tithes and agreed to build all 
necessary churches. This land, consisting of two lots, 
was bought by the King for two hundred dollars in 1792, 
and the building which was put up on it outlasted the 
Spanish rule. It was of brick, with (he side on Royal 
Street, and the high altar opposite the entrance. The 
commandants and other officials worshipped there in state. 

The parsonage had a house, outbuildings and fruit 
trees, but there was not space for a garden and stock, 
and in order to have room for a garden one padre got a 
new place in the Orange Grove. The old building was 
sold for eight hundred and five dollars to Eslava. The 
church afterwards contested the sale, but Eslava held 
the property. 

3. The Cemetery. When the church was moved the 
cemetery was moved also. A space tour hundred by three 
hundred feet was selected for that purpose at the inter- 
section of Dauphin and what is now called Franklin 
Streets, buL it was then out in the woods. The Cathedral 
stands on the western part, but the property extended 
further east on Dauphin and south beyond Conii. On 
it are now found stores, the asylum and other property 
ot the church. Conti Street did not originally run through 
it and when this was done many years later graves ware 
disco veered beneath the surface. In this graveyard were 
buried some of the priests themselves and many of the offi- 
cials and colonists of the lit Lie Spanish city. 

4- The Padres. Catholic priests in any country are 
of one of two classes. The first secular, that is, belonging 



174 Under Five Flags 

to the clergy who Hve among the people and are subject to 
bishops. The other class belong to some of the orders of 
the monks, in which case they are known as regular clergy, 
subject to their own officials. Those of Mobile in Spanish 
times were all of some monastic order, but were under 
the directionof the local bishop. The first priest was Fray 
Salvador, a parish priest of the Mercedarian order, but he 
was shortly succeeded by Fray Carlos, who was a Capuchin. 
He soon died and was buried here . The next was Fray 
Francisco, a Dominican, who like Carlos was both priest 
{euro) of the town and chaplain (capellan) of the fort. 

A French abbe acted for a while, but then came Eon, 
who had the largest library of which we read, but confined 
to sermons, breviaries, prayers, and other religious works. 
We learn that the good priest had of course the wine and 
oil necessary for the church, and also knives, forks, spoons, 
plates, glass, razors, a parasol and a good deal of clothing 
and bedding, besides tobacco and furniture. The salary 
seems to have been thirty-five piastres a month, and 
the allowance for bread, wine and lights. At his death 
his effects were sold and the articles were bought by many 
different persons. 

There were a good many English-speaking Americans 
and from the Spanish college at Salamanca were sent o\'er 
a number of Irish priests to convert them. Among them 
were Lamport and McKenna, both of whom came to 
Mobile and died here. McKenna is the best known of 
them all and his flowing English hand is the most legible 
in the records. 

5. The Records. The Spanish priests kept records in 
the same manner as the French and amongst others a 
negro registry, which comas down later than the others. 
There was if anything less municipal life shown at Mobile 
under the Spanish than under the French, although the 



Church of the Immaculate Conception 175 

records have great variety ot terms for the place. Some- 
times it is spoken ot as Plaza de La Mohila and then 
again as Villa, and one priest uses Ciudad (city), the same 
word which is appHed to the City of Mexico. The church 
records throw light on civil life in Spanish times just as 
they did in the French, for the titles and business of parties 
are given, and sometimes of witnesses. The language 
is always Spanish, although people were largely French, 
and there had to be an official French interpreter. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 

INDUSTRIES OF THE COLONISTS. 

1. The Houses. Mobile did not improve in appearance 
under the Spaniards, for the place was smaller and less 
money was spent on buildings. The usual house was ot 
wooden frame, filled in with clay or moss, and with a roof 
of bark or tiles. The side was turned toward the street 
as in French times, and in fact there was no change in the 
old style of building except in the greater use of clay. 
This made what is called an adobe house. There was 
sometimes a brick cellar, but Mobile was so near the lev^el 
of the river that cellars have always been rare. Oftener 
the house was raised and a long flight of steps ran up from 
the street. Sometimes the house was ceiled and fre- 
quently it had a gallery all around instead of the projecting 
roof of Canadian style, but it seldom had a hall through 
the centre. The kitchen was generally a separate building, 
but might be sometimes a lean-to, and behind was a 
garden, where flowers were grown as well as vegetables. 
The whole place was surrounded by a picket fence. 

2. Traders. The shops were not very different and often 
were but the front rooms of the little homes. Stocks of 
goods were not large, but they sometimes showed great 
variety. This was particularly so of the traders with 
the Indians. We have the papers of one whose goods 
were seized for debt, and these consisted of deer skins, 
bear oil, linen, tobacco, pepper, plates and wine, and we 
find again in other estates soap, blankets, fishing line and 
powder. Such legal sales were begun by a drum, instead 
of the bell which was usual under the English. In one 
such case on a plantation across the Bay were sold cloth- 
ing, boiler and mill, and cows, besides vinegar, salt and 



Industries of the Colonists VJI. 

seine. Another trader was killed and his stock of goods 
embraced silk, linen, table-cloths, napkins, thread, gloves, 
delft ware, scales, weights, spurs, tin spoons, plates and a 
writing desk. The widow of this merchant came all the 
way from South Carolina to reclaim her husband's prop- 
erty, for by Spanish law the wife inherited the property 






i* vd' 




REGI 

DE infaN =^1WMEI#I T e ft. 1 a 



JFIXOIDELA \?a3Mi*.'^ LtJISIA 



D. FRANCISCO BOULIui^^. 

CORONtL DEL RHFERlDO REGIMIHNTd 



P< 



ORl ia jjresente concedo Ucencia i. (/f-nfiviio 'rOKiend' [fo/Jcu 
de li '^■f/rmr Compaiiia dti if&iCc'i' Bitalloni irespeiSls Jhircx (u. 



SPANISH PASSPORT 

of the husband and the husband inherited the property 
of the wife. 

3. Indigo. The people always had vegetables from 
their little gardens, but there was not in Spanish times 
any staple produce. For a while some attention was paid 
to indigo, which grew wild. The leaves of this plant were 
gathered, steeped in hot water, and the sediment was 



178 Under Five Flags 

packed in cakes for use. The crop was unreliable, how- 
ever, because liable to be injured by high water, which 
was often experienced in spring on the Mobile delta. 

J}.. Cotton. Cotton was raised in some quantity and 
used for domestic ..purposes, but the difficulty of separat- 
ing the lint from the seed prevented it from being important 
at this time. The separation of the seed was done by the 
negroes by hand and it was slow work. A primitive form 
of loom was in use on the coast, consisting of an upright 
frame, from which hung the thread of the warp, through 
which the shuttle was thrown by hand. In this way cottoa 
cloth was produced for home use. There would have to 
be some better plan devised for getting the seed out of 
the cotton, however, before it could become a great indus- 
try. The plant was raised even on the Bay shore lands. 

5. Lumber and Brick. Saw mills had been common 
from the earliest times and the saw was used in an upright 
frame, working up and down. Saw Mill Creek marks a 
famous old mill site. Eslava had one southwest of the 
town and the Kennedys and Byrnes had saw mills on 
Tensaw River. There were many good mill sites on the 
creeks emptying into the Mobile waters and the Spanish 
utilized a number of them, shipping the lumber by river 
or Bay over to the city. Brickyards were also numerous, 
for the clay found in this vicinity is of a high grade. There 
were several near Fly Creek on the Eastern Shore, and 
Espejo had a brickyard near Choctaw Point. 

6. Vaqueria. A business which was almost new now 
came into prominence. Cattle raising had been unknown 
to the Indians, but not uncommon among the French and 
English. Now the Spaniards devoted a good deal of 
attention to it and had pens in different parts of the coun- 
try. Their name for it was Vaqueria, translated into 
English as Cow-pen, and large herds were kept. The 



Industries of the Colonists 179 

remains of a Cow-pen, with a mound all around to keep in 
the cattle, can be seen at Parker's on the west side of 
Mobile Bay. The many swamps of the country afforded 
good pasture even in the winter and made the business 
profitable, 

7. Business. There were artisans about the town, 
such as blacksmiths, carpenters and butchers, and those 
connected with the army were of some prominence. Espejo 
was the royal baker and conducted the Royal Bakery at the 
southeast corner of Conti and St. Emanuel, where the 
same business had been carried on under the English and 
French. There were doctors but no lawyers except the 
prosecuting attorney. The earliest French hospital had 
been at the southeast corner of Dauphin and Conception, 
but in British times it had been high up on Royal Street. 
Under the Spaniards also it was a public institution and 
was located opposite its original French site. The low 
adobe building and the trees and flowers surrounding it 
took up perhaps a quarter of the present Bienville Square, 
and it had its of^cial surgeon and attendants^. 

8. John Forbes & Co. Ever since Bienville made Mobile 
the headquarters for the Indian department it was the place 
from which the colonial government, whether French, 
English or Spanish, controlled the trade with the natives. 
Each of these governments made annual presents to the 
different tribes to keep them in good humor, and this was 
necessary, because the Indians never rose much above 
their original hunting and fishing stage. For their bow and 
arrow they merely substituted gun and ammunition, 
which they could not make, and instead of skin clothing 
they had shirts and leggings of cotion, which also were made 
in Europe. Not only did they call for kettles, knives, 
beads and looking-glasses, but at an early day they formed 
a strong taste for liquor. They acquired the vices rather 



180 



Under Five Flaos 



than the virtues of civilization, but it all led to a large 
Indian trade. The leading house in this trade under the 
British was Swanson and McGillivray, who were connected 
with the other British house of Mather and Strothers, 
which lasted into Spanish times. The principal firm in 
this business after a while was Turnbull and Joyce, and 
Joyce seems to have done a large business of different 
kinds. Another Briton, however, soon founded a house 
which was famous far and wide and took the place of all 
others. This was William Panton, a Scotchman like so 




SPANISH RELICS, ETC. 

many of the traders, and his firm of Panton, Leslie & Co. 
had branches in Cuba, the Bahamas, Pensacola, Mobile 
and elsewhere. They sent caravans of traders amongst 
the Indians, made advances, and in return received skins 
and other goods, and they were for many purposes the 
agents of the Spanish government. Their activity among 
the Indians lasted long after the Ellicott Line had put 
the Creeks and Choctaws within the American limits, and 
they received from the Indians large tracts of land in settle- 



Industries of the Colonists 181 

ment of debts. ■ The name of the house was later changed 
to John Forbes & Co. Forbes himself staid in Cuba, and 
the business in Mobile was managed by his agent James 
Innerarity, for many years one of the leading men at 
Mobile. While they did not obtain any land from the 
Indians immediately about the city, Forbes & Co. did get 
grants of the Orange Grove and Choctaw Point Tracts 
from the Spanish government, besides much of the river 
front just north of the fort, and also city lots. Their 
headquarters were on Royal Street where St, Francis 
Street now crosses and their main buildings took up the 
Custom House site and much of the block next north, 
while their skin houses and wagon yards were scattered 
over the land to the west. All in all John Forbes & Com- 
pany were the principal business men of Mobile under the 
Spaniards. 

9. Money. The silver of Mexico at this time furnished 
much of the money of Europe and the United States. 
During the wars of Napoleon's day Spain could do little 
for her province of West Florida, and a paper money 
circylated here which was at a discount of forty per cent, 
below "hard money." Some old money is often mentioned, 
such as piastres and pesos, but the dollar is generally 
named together with the ryal or bit, and- the little silver 
piece called the picaillon or picayune. These terms were 
as much used above the line as in Florida, and bits and 
picayunes have always remained Mobile words. 

10. Population. Affairs were too troubled in Europe 
for Spain to exercise much control in Florida, and the 
Spanish officials had not the same energy that Bienville 
had shown under similar circumstances. There was more 
formality but less real work by the officers. Before Elli- 
cott's Line was run it is said that there were not over eight 
hundred men in the whole province, and of these less than 



182 Under Five Flags 

one hundred were Spaniards. This would mean a total 
population in West Florida of about four thousand people. 
While running the Line injured West Florida by narrowing 
it in some places to a strip of sand forty odd miles wide, 
it increased the population by adding all who withdrew 
from Fort St. Stephen and other points above the Line. 
We are told that the population of Mobile itself in 1803 
was eight hundred and ten people. From about this time 
on, however, the number in all West Florida increased, 
for the Louisiana Cession attracted many Americans to 
the South West, and not a few came into West Florida to 
settle. The authorities began to fear this increase of 
Americans, and in 1805 an order was issued forbidding 
grants except to Spanish subjects. After this Americans 
could acquire land only by becoming Spaniards. 



CHAPTER XXV. 

MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY AND ITS NEIGHBORS. 

1. Organization. While the Spanish residents on the 
Gulf were living quietly and contentedly on what the soil 
and waters produced, there was a very different scene in 
the southwest part of the new country called the United 
States, Kentucky and Tennessee had been the first 
settlements made by the Americans west of the Allegheny 
Mountains, and, not only did these people open a trade 
down the Mississippi River with New Orleans, but they 
began to settle on the river or seek new homes in the 
country nearby. So many did they become that in 1798 
the United States created what is called the Mississippi 
Territory, with its capital at Natchez. It extended from 
the Mississippi River to the Chattahoochee and its north 
line was finally moved up to join Tennessee. Its south 
boundary was of course the Ellicott Line, which was run 
because of this increase of population. Not only did 
Western people come down the Mississippi, but others 
from Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee passed into the 
Tennessee Valley and across the mountain country until 
they reached the Tombigbee. Some also came cross- 
country from Georgia to the Alabama River, and from both 
directions immigrants journeyed down to what was now 
called St. Stephens. The American government felt it 
necessary to build Fort Stoddert near the Line, at the place 
which we now call Mt. Vernon Landing. The old British 
residents on the Tombigbee and Tensaw began to find 
themselves outnumbered by newcomers from the American 
states. 

This was a kind of colonization, but different from that 
wiiich we have been studying. The old colony was made 



184 Under Five Flags 

up of people sent out by a European government to hold a 
district for the home country, and only inqidentally to 
.grow and have interests of its own. Now, however, the 
government had nothing to do with these colonists who 
came out from the American states to seek their fortunes 
in the West. What was done was done by the people 
themselves. The govememnt did not place them on the 
lands and really found it difficult to keep up with them. 
It built forts and organized governments only when the 
need was pressing. The movement was more of an expan- 
sion of the American people than a colonization. 

2. The Washington District. The American system 
provided for subdivisions called counties and in 1800 
Washington county was created, extending from the 
Pearl River to the Chattahoochee. The Americans made 
a treaty with the Indians at Fort Confederation (the old 
French Fort Tombecb^) confirming the Tombigbee grant 
to the British, for the Spanish, like the French, deemed 
the whole country theirs and had not wanted any cessions 
of land from the Indians. The seat of the new county was 
first at Wakefield, but St. Stephens and Fort Stoddert 
were the large towns. The country was becoming in 
all respects American, except that Spatiish money was 
used, and one of the new things was the visit of Protestant 
preachers. Protestantism was already flourishing in the 
Natchez country and now there came to what was called 
the Tensaw and Washington districts a good but eccentric 
Methodist preacher named Lorenzo Dow. He came only 
on visits and there was no regular pastor for a number of 
years. 

3. The American Log Cabin. One of the new things 
brought to the country was the log cabin, with a hall 
through the centre and rooms on each side, and it was 
entirely different from the Spanish house. The old Latin 



Mississippi Territory and lis Neighbors 185 

house had its side to the street bul the roof was high 
pitched and the projection at the front covered the raised 
gallery floor. The American log cabin also had its long 
side to the road, and adopted the covered gallery in front 
of the hall; but the roof pitch was low and the gallery was 
really a separate thing from the house. The hall was 
brought by the Americans from the Atlantic, and even the 
gallery which was adopted from the French somewhat dilTer- 
ed from w'hat it had been. The front gallery was the social 
centre of the house. The furniture was less attractive 
than that below the Line, for it was not imported, but 
merely rough benches, beds made of straw or shucks, and 
the floors of puncheon or split logs. The clothing was 
homespun, and table ware very simple. All this was 
made up for, however, by the fact that the people who used 
them were active and progressive. They had come so 
far only by using every knack and talent, and their primi- 
tive settlements were to advance rapidly for the same 
reasons. Their hardships developed character. 

4. Fort Stoddert. Fort Stoddert on Mobile River near 
the Line was more than a mere frontier post, because there 
lived the agents of the American government, and these 
not only looked after the settlers, but dealt with the Indians 
on the one side and the Spaniards on the other. The agent 
was for a long time Lieutenant E. P. Gaines, whose name 
was distinguished in the South West. Fort Stoddert was 
made the American port of entry, where a collector received 
the duties on cargoes brought from abroad. While Fort 
Stoddert was not the seat of civil government, the first 
judge in this part of the country, Ephraim Kirby, held 
court and is buried there. 

5. Harry Toulmin. The distance of the Washington 
District from Natchez made it necessary for the local 
officers to have special powers. A judge, therefore, not 



186 Under Five Flags 

only lived there, but his court attended to Federal as well 
as local matters. Court like other public business was 
carried on at the county seat. Under the Americans civil 
and military affairs are entirely distinguished, and the 
county seat was not at Fort Stoddert. First it was at 
Mcintosh Bluff, near the j unction of the Alabama and Tom- 
bigbee Rivers, but afterwards somewhat inland at Wake- 
field and later at Washington Court House. It was finally 
located at St. Stephens, which became an incorporated 
town from 1807. The judge who succeeded Kirby was 
Harry Toulmin, an English clergyman who had lived in 
Tennessee until President Jeft'erson appointed him judge 




PIONEER RELICS 

of the Washington District. He was an active man and 
of great influerjce. The first law" books were made up at 
Natchez, but Toulmin compiled a larger and much better 
book, which remained in use a long Lime. 

6. Aaron Burr. Although Mississippi Territory was 
far away from the settled parts of America, it was making 
history in several ways. Its relations to the Spaniards 
were important, and in the year 1807 it was visited by the 
celebrated Aaron Burr on his expedition to the South West. 
Burr was a distinguished citizen of New York and had been 
vice-president of the United States. What was his present 



Mississippi Territory and Its Neighbors 187 

plan has never quite been settled, but it seems to have 
been to attack and conquer Mexico somewhat as Cortez 
had done. President Jefferson, however, was hostile to 
him and caused his expedition to be broken up at Natchez 
and Burr arrested. He was a great favorite wherever he 
went and had no difficulty in getting away when he was 
tried. He escaped through the woods and reached the 
Washington District. His object was to get to Mobile or 
Pensacola and from there he could either escape or carry 
out his plans, but in the Washington District he was 
recognized as he made an inquiry at the court house, and 
Captain Gaines was notified. Gaines with some soldiers 
met Burr on a rise of the public road near Mcintosh Bluff 
and Burr surrendered, for resistance was useless. He was 
conducted to Fort Stoddert and remained there until the 
president sent word what to do with him. Burr was an 
able man, about whom has gathered a great deal oi romance. 
It was difficult to handle him, for he seemed to fascinate 
e\-eryone. According to orders from Washington he was 
finally rowed across the river to Tensaw Boat Yard and then 
carried by a detachment on horseback through the Indian 
country to Richmond for trial. There he was finally acquit- 
ted, but he was never able to take up again his Mexican 
plans. He always declared that he had no designs against 
Louisiana or any American territory, and seems to have 
been the first of the men who tried to seize different Spanish 
possessions, either for themselves or to annex them to the 
United States. 

7. The Kemper Raid. An instance of this kind came to 
a head very soon. The South West was pioneer and the 
manners and methods of many of the people were rough. 
Thus two men named Kemper living in Mississippi Terri- 
tory suffered some grievances from the Spanish officials 
and were active in raids across the line. The people of 



"188 Under Five Flags 

the Washington country were anxious to have Mobile made 
a part of the United States, for then the country would 
have an outlet to the Gulf of Mexico. They were urging 
the American government to seize Mobile, but, as the gov- 
ernment would not do it, they were anxious to take the 
place by force. Accordingly Kemper organized the expe- 
dition which went down into the Tensaw District and 
thence across to Saw Mill Creek above Mobile. Cyrus 
Sibley and a number of others joined it, but it was not 
well conducted. The Spanish commandant at Mobile 
learned of it and sent soldiers up, who captured the raiders 
and brought them to Mobile. After being a while in the 
prison at Fort Charlotte, some of them, including Sibley, 
were sent to Morro Castle at Havana. 

5". The State of West Florida. While Burr's plans mis- 
carried, the movement on which he had embarked soon 
bore fruit. So many Americans had moved into the 
South West and passed below the Line, that West Florida 
gradually became more American than Spanish. The 
Spaniards never increased in number on account of the 
troubles in Europe, while the Americans were always coming 
in. The result was thai Americans began a revolution at 
Baton Rouge in 1810 and an independent state called 
West Florida was organized, which was intended to take 
in Mobile; but its soldiers never got so far east, for Governor 
Claiborne of Louisiana put an end to the new state by 
annexing its actual territory to Louisiana. The Americans 
did not attempt to annex Mobile, however. On the con- 
trary, American troops were sent down from Fort Sloddert 
to protect Mobile from the West Florida revolutionists, and 
they encamped north of the town in the Orange Grove. 
They remained all winter, and when the danger was over 
chey were taken back up the river. Fort Stoddert being 
immediately on the water was not quite healthy, and so 



Mississippi Territory and Its Neighbors 189 







nsXhti.. 



SPANISH MOBILE 



190 Under Five Flags 

the troops about this time built a post further inland, 
which was named Mt. Vernon, after Washington's home. 
9. General Wilkinson at Mobile. After the Americans 
took possession of Louisiana by raising the flag at New 
Orleans, troops had remained there. The commander 
at the time of Burr's expedition was General Wilkinson, 
originally a trader from Kentucky. It has been more 
than suspected that he was a partner in Burr's plans, but 
he became the chief agent of President Jefferson in opposing 
Burr. During the wars of Napoleon in Europe, Spain 
was disputed by the French and English, and when the 
War of 1812 broke out between Great Britain and United 
St ates the Spanish ports were used by English as if they were 
their own. President Madison took advantage of this 
situation to direct Wilkinson at New Orleans to capture 
Mobile, and the result was an expedition by sea which 
landed on the Bay shore, while troops came from Fort 
Stoddert with brass cannon. There were but few soldiers 
in Fort Charlotte, while Wilkinson was supplied with 
everything that could be asked, and so when he made a 
demand upon Perez for surrender (here was nothing else 
that the Spanish commander could do. He protested 
against invasion by a nation with whom his own country 
was at peace, but to save the shedding of blood surrendeied 
the fort and town on April 13th, 1813. Wilkinson sent the 
garrison by sea to Pensacola, which was beyond the dis- 
puted boundary, and reported to Washington the capture 
of Mobile "without the effusion of a drop of blood." The 
United States had now made good their claim that the 
Louisiana Purchase extended to the Perdido River, and 
Mobile had at last become American. 






UNITED STATES FLAG 

(Early Nineteenth Century) 



PERIOD VI. 

THE AMERICAN CITY 

1813-1861 



A UTHORITIES. 

Documents. United Statutes at Large; H. Toulmin, Laws 
of Alabama, (1823); Mobile Municipal Records; J. T. 
Blocker, Code of Mobile, (1837); A. McKinstry, Municipal 
Laws; Ala. Inst. Tech., Studies; Pickett Papers, Alabama 
Department of Archives; Draper Manuscripts, (Madison, 
Wis.); A. L. Latour's War in West Florida (1816); Deed 
Books in Probate Court of Mobile County, Washington 
County, etc., Alabama ; Annual Reports Mobile & Ohio Rail- 
road ; Mobile Register files; George S. Gaines, Reminiscences. 

Histories. J. F. H. Claiborne, Mississippi;- Sam Dale; 
A. B. Meek, Romantic Passages of Soutlnvestern History 
(1857); A. J. Pickett, History of Alabama (1851, 1896 
reprint) ; W. Brewer, Alabama (1872) ; Ball and Halbert, 
Creek War (1895); T. H. Ball, Clarke County (1882); 
H. B. Cushman, Choctaw, etc., Indians (1899); William 
Garrett, Public Men in Alabama (1872); Ethel Amies, 
Story of Coal and Iron in Alabama (1910); Historic Towns 
of the South (1900); U. B. Phillips, Transportation in the 
Eastern Cotton Belt (1908.) 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

TOWN BUILDING. 

1. The Local Government. The stars and stripes floating 
over Fort Charlotte would bring self-government, but the 
people of Mobile were so used to having both civil and 
military affairs carried on by one official that there was 
no difficulty enforcing military law for the time being. 
For almost a year, the commander of the fort directed 
everything. There were now many Americans in the 
place. Some moved down from St. Stephens and from 
Fort Stoddert. The Mobile Centinel had already been 
started at Fort Stoddert and the Gazette was now begun 
at Mobile. Perhaps even more important was the coming 
of lawyers and justices of the peace. The territorial 
legislature had in 1812 established Mobile County, extend- 
ing to the Perdido River, bounded west by Jackson County, 
which went to Pearl River. On January 20, 1814, an act 
was passed providing for the incorporation of Mobile and 
under this a meeting of citizens was had and an election 
arranged for. Seven commissioners were elected, some of 
them Americans and others of old Spanish stock, and, 
when they had been sworn into office by Josiah Blakely as 
justice of the peace, they took charge of the town affairs. 
The boundaries had been indefinite under the Spaniards, 
but now extended from Choctaw Point to a ford over 
Bayou Chateaugay (as it was spelled), and this has been 
substantially the boundary ever since. The Spaniards 
had had no taxes, as all expenses were paid from Spain 
but with the Americans came licenses and taxes on land 
and slaves, and Mobile was fully launched as an American 
town. Different ordinances were passed to provide fos'' 
good order, a market house was built at the foot of Dauphin 



194 Under Five Flags 

Street and this was to play a great part in fixing the shora 
Hne of the town; for gradually the shore was reclaimed 
north and south from this point. Of the same nature was 
the building of a town wharf nearby, for this marked the 
beginning of a new system. The old wharf in front of the 
fort was owned by the government and used only for 
public purposes, and the shipping of the merchants of the 
town was now carried over the new wharf. 

2. Josiah Blakely. These matters looking to the use of 
the water front show why the Americans had coveted 
Mobile, but Mobile was not the only port . which was 
planned. St. Stephens itself was a port, and, if 1 he Alabama- 
Tombigbee Basin should become a great agricultural 
district, there would be room for other ports as well. 
The situation was different from what it had been at any 
time in Mobile's history. The former governors had kept 
commerce under the guns of Fort Charlotte, but this was 
no longer to be the case. Fort Charlotte was important 
as against the Spaniards of Florida, but the American plan 
was to leave commerce to develop for itself such cities as 
were found necessary. For this reason the shrewd Josiah 
Blakely thought it possible to build another port, and so 
even before Mobile was incorporated he had a surveyor 
lay out a town bearing his name on the east bank of the 
Tensaw River. The streets there were named after 
prominent Americans, such as Washington, and alleys for 
trees, such as Live Oak. The town was incorporated two 
weeks before Mobile, and an elaborate plat put on record. 
Several hundred lots were sold, a hotel built, and the place 
became so thriving that it was uncertain for a time whether 
it would not surpass Mobile. 

3. Families from St. Stephens. A good deal ot atten- 
tion was now directed to the South West and many people 
came from the older states. Some well known families 



Town Building 195 

came from St. Stephens, and it is said that more than one 
house was dismantled there and brought down the river 
and rebuilt in Mobile. The first element of the Mobile 
population we know had been French, to whom were later 
added some British like McCurtin, and then came Spaniards 
like Eslava, together with the Kennedys and Murrells, 
who had become Spanish. Now were added the Americans 
and of them the people from St. Stephens were among the 
most energetic citizens that Mobile has ever had. The 
movement lasted a long time, and St. Stephens played 
here the part that Huntsville did in North Alabama. 

J).. The Land Question. It is impossible for any com- 
munity to flourish without good titles to land. No one 
will improve his property and no one can do much business 
if he does not know that his property is secure. For this 
reason the first thing which each government has regulated 
in Mobile has been the ownership of land. So it had been 
under the French, British and Spanish, and now the United 
States took up the task. The city lots had been occupied 
time out of mind and gave no trouble, but the grants which 
the Spaniards had made after the cession of Louisiana to 
France were not only disputed by the American govern- 
ment, but incoming Americans sought to obtain new grants 
to the same land. This created much confusion. The 
United States tried to settle these questions by an act 
of Congress of 1812, under which commissioners were 
appointed to report on the old titles. Lists were made 
of all claims, and, where there was no question, titles were 
declared good, or "confirmed" as it was called, to the 
occupants. Disputed claims were further looked into and 
from time to time declared good or bad. The investi- 
gation lasted many years before everything was settled. 

5. Indian Cessions. There was another class of ques- 
tions which were settled in a difterent way. Treaties by 



196 Under Five Flags 

which lands were ceded to the United States were made 
with all four Indian tribes of whom we have learned. The 
treaty of Fort Confederation in 1802 with the Choctaws 
confirmed the old British boundary and another treaty 
next year at St. Stephens ceded all the Choctaws owned 
between the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. The 
Choctaw ownership had been pushed westward by the 
Creeks and at this time was west of what is still called the 
Indian Boundary Line, running on the watershed between 
the two rivers. There was no cession from the Creek 
Indians for years to come and indeed nothing more from 
the Choctaws except that in 1805 they deeded a wide 
strip extending from Natchez to St. Stephens. 

6. Public Lands. We have seen that both Spain and 
France made government grants, and that the British 
also granted out large tracts to applicants. The American 
plan was that of small grants to individuals. A regular 
system of selling public lands had been adopted before 
Mississippi Territory had been formed, and was now 
applied in the South West, As the territory was ceded, 
the land was surveyed into townships six miles square, 
numbered in a certain order, and these townships were div- 
ided into sections of a square mile each. Land offices for 
sale of lands to applicants were set up at convenient 
places. From 1803 St. Stephens was the principal office 
for this part of the country, and the starting point for 
surveys was the old Ellicott Stone on the line of 31 degrees. 
In this way there was no overlapping. The first plan of 
selling was- on credit, and this brought many settlers and 
led to the rapid building up of the country trading with 
Mobile. This in turn built up the town also. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

FROM FORT MI MS TO FORT BOWYER. 

1. The Creek Indians. We have seen how the boundary 
between the Choctaws and the Muscogees was formerly 
in the neighborhood of Cahaba River and how after the 
expedition of De Soto it retreated to the west and finally 
was the watershed between the Alabama and the Tom- 
bigbee. Rivers. The Choctaw cessions gave the Americans 
all territory west of the watershed, and it was soon occupied 
almost as fully as beyond the Tombigbee. Clarke County 
was created in 1812 and in theory extended from the Tom- 
bigbee eastwardly to Georgia, but for purposes of settle- 
ment was limited by this Indian Boundary Line. The 
only treaty with the Creeks was one in 1805, giving the 
United States the right to open a path from Georgia south- 
west to the Tensaw River. East of the Tensaw and of 
Mobile Bay there were now many settlers; but the Creeks 
questioned the titles, for they had never ceded anything 
except the bare shore of the river and Bay to the British. 
The threatening state of affairs between Great Britain and 
the United States caused great uneasiness among the 
Indians of the North West and a visit from their leader, 
Tecumseh, to the South affected the Indians here also. 
About this time the path through the Creek nation was 
widened to a road from Georgia to the Tensaw, as was 
that through the last Choctaw cession over to Natchez. 
The whole was known as the Federal Road and was the 
way by which people came to the South West. A famous 
guide was Sam Dale, and he foresaw danger before the 
United States Creek agent, Hawkins, did. 

2. The War in Clarke. The principal American 
post outside of Mobile was at Mt. Vernon, and Flournoy, 



198 Under Five Flags 

the general who succeeded Wilkinson, was at Mobile. St. 
Stephens had grown up south of a ravine near the Spanish 
fort and the town was protected by a Fort called Republic. 
As the prospect of war with the Indians increased, neighbor- 
hood forts were built all through the country, generally 
mere stockades about some planter's house, but, if built 
on a hill and containing a spring, they gave protection 
against the Indians. In Clarke County there was a string 
of such posts from the Tombigbee and across the Alabama 
to Fort Minis at Tensaw, which was itself only one of 
several forts. In this chain near the Tombigbee was Fort 
Madison and about midway was Fort Sinquefield. Every 
few days some disturbance occurred along the Indian 
frontier. A Mrs. Crawley was taken to the Creek post 
at Tuscaloosa, families were murdered in the country, 
and Fort Sinquefield was attacked but successfully 
defended. 

3. Fort Mims. One of the features of an American 
Territory was that the men were organized into militia, 
and they were as active as the regular army. As the 
Indians were supposed to get ammunition from the English 
at Pensacola, some militia lay in wait for the return of a 
party at Burnt Corn, near the Escambia River. A battle 
followed which would have been a success for the whites 
but for their scattering for booty. Then the Indians re- 
turned and the whites were driven from the field. This was 
more than a defeat , for it encouraged the savages, and fear 
spread over the whole frontier. Settlers took refuge with 
their families in the nearest fort. The best knowTi on the 
Alabama River was Fort Mims, surrounding the residence 
of an old Indian trader named Samuel Mims, and about 
five hundred people, including two companies of soldiers, 
were quartered within it. The commander was Major 
Beasley, who did not think the Indians would venture to 



Fort Minis to Fort Bozuyer 199 

attack his command. There was so much passing in and 
out that it was inconvenient to shut the gate, and rain 
and travel soon banked the sand against it. A negro 
brought word on the thirtieth of August that the Indians 
were coming, but thiere had been so many false reports that 
Beasley had him strung up to be whipped. At the noon 
hour for dinner, however, the guard at the gate saw them 
coming indeed, 'a thousand men under McQueen and 
Weatherford ; and before the gate could be closed or troops 
formed, they were in the fort, killing men, women and chil- 
dren, with muskets and tomahawks. Beasley died fighting 
bravely, and defense was attempted by a half-breed Indian 
named Dixon Bailey, but he also was killed with hundreds 
of others. Hardly two dozen people escaped from the 
slaughter house. Two of them were a woman and child 
who were sheltered by an Indian whom they once befriend- 
ed. The few fugitives made their way to nearby settle- 
ments and over to Mt. Vernon, and gave the sad news. 
A relief expedition promptly came, but only found homes 
burned and hundreds of corpses, and all they could do was 
to bury the dead. 

4. Pushmataha. Some of the Creeks had remained 
friendly, such as Bailey, Manac, who had a ferry on the 
Alabama, and David Tait, who lived at the bend called 
for him, Tait's Shoals. They were prosperous men, and, 
besides their white blood and sympathies, knew that the 
triumph of the Indians meant a return to barbarism. 
The leader of the Creeks was Weatherford, called by them 
the Red Eagle, who, like so many other chiefs, had white 
blood in his veins. He had tried to restrain his country- 
men, but when they resolved upon war he went with 
them and proved an active leader. Tecumsch's influence 
had been less strong among the Choctaws, mainly from the 
influence of one man. The chief of the East Division of 



200 



Under Five Flags 



the Choctaws at this time was Pushmataha. He was 
proud to be of the tribe which had never slain a white man 
and went with George S. Gaines to Mobile to offer his 
services to Fiournoy. That general at first repulsed him, 
but afterwards sent a messenger to recall him, and Push- 
mataha organized his Choctaws to aid the whites in the 
war which was now on. 

5. The Canoe Fight. The news of Fort Mims roused the 
whole South West, and troops were soon marching from 
Tennessee, Georgia, and 
Natchez upon the heart of 
the Creek country. Indian 
hostilities had begun all 
along the frontier, but the 
whites soon made the Ala- 
bama River the seat of war, 
although both its banks 
from near Fort Mims north 
east were in the Creek 
territory. On November 
20 a scouting party from 
Clarke County crossed 
near Randon's Creek and 
saw a large canoe full of 
Indians descending the 
river. Three whites, 

Jeremiah x'\ustill, Sam Dale 
and James Smith, besides a 
negro rower, pushed out to 

attack them. Muskets were fired until the two boats got to 
close quarters, when the whites and Indians grappled with 
each other hand to hand. Perhaps the fewness of the whites 
gave them more room to act, and at all events they soon 
killed or knocked down all the Indians and. threw them into 




PUSHMATAHA 



From Fort Mims to Fort Boztyer 201 

I 
the river. It was one of the most desperate events in 
frontier annals and was worthy of Greek history. It was 
only an episode, but, like McKee's burning the Creek village 
of Tuscaloosa, it showed the spirit with which the whites 
were going into the war. It was indeed a struggle for 
existence on both sides. 

6. General Claiborne. Almost all the regular troops of 
the United States were engaged with the British along the 
Canadian frontier and the war in the South West was 
waged by militia and volunteers. Claiborne commanded 
the territorial troops, and was instructed to confine himself 
to the defense of Mobile, and he understood this to mean 
to go into the enemy's country. The name Creek was ap- 
plied to the whole confederacy, but the places down the 
river towards Mobile were"* Alibamon. The chief point 
in this direction was Econachaca, the Holy Ground, where 
the Indians collected supplies and plunder, and which 
was supposed to be protected by spirits. This, therefore, 
was the object of Claiborne's campaign, and he marched 
across to Weatherford's Bluff, where he built a fort which 
has given the name to Claiborne. In December, jusi 
before Christmas, he advanced and stormed the Holy 
Ground, where he killed many Indians and drove the others 
into the river. Weatherford was there, but he leaped his 
gray horse. Arrow, over the bluff and escaped. The town 
was burned and the captured supplies were used for the 
army and the Choctaws, but unfortunately Claiborne's 
men had volunteered for short terms and he was unable to 
advance any further into the Creek country. It had, 
however, been invaded also from the east by General Floyd 
with Georgians, but after one battle they had to retire 
from lack of provisions. The brunt of war was left to an 
army from Tennessee, whose leader became one of 
America's famous men. 



202 Under Five Flags 

7. Andretv Jackson. Tennessee has been called the 
Volunteer State because its psaple, who so largely settled 
Alabama, fought Indian wars for themselves without 
waiting for the regular army. And so it was now. George 
S. Gaines, the Indian agent on the Tombigbee, had sent 
the news of Fort Minis to Governor Blount of Tennessee, 
who directed General Andrew Jackson to call out the 
militia. Jackson was confined to his house from a wound 
received in a duel, but lost no tim.e. He had assistants in 
John Coffee and others, and started troops on the way to 
Huntsville. Supplies were not prompt and Jackson moved 
without them. He crossed over to the Coosa Valley and 
went down the stream, somewhat over De Soto's route, 
into the heart of the Creek country. The Tennesseans 
knew how to find the Indians as well as fight them, and one 
victory followed another. Jackson met with one repulse 
at Emuckfau, but on March 27, 1814, attacked the Creeks 
at Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. It was a 
wild spot, fit for the last star.d of the Indians, and, while 
Jackson attacked in front, Coffee and the Cherokees 
guarded the river behind. Both sides realized the import- 
ance of the battle and it was long and desperately con- 
tested; but at last of the twelve hundred Creeks hardly 
two hundred were left alive, and these escaped to the forest. 
Few Americans were lost, but one of them was Major 
Montgomery, for whom a county was to be named. No 
successful resistance was made after this, and Jackson 
soon took up his headquarters at old Fort Toulouse. Its 
trenches were cleaned out, necessary buildings put up, and 
its name changed to Fort Jackson. There the war ended, 
for soon Weatherford came in and surrendered, in an elo- 
quent plea for his people, and Jackson protected him from 
the fury of the soldiers. Weatherford then returned to his 
home at Little River. 



From Fort Minis to Fort Boivyer 203 

8. Defence of Fort Bowyer. Jackson sent some of his 
troops back to Tennessee and with others came down the 
Alabama River to Mobile, and on the way his aide, Horace 
Tatum, made the first survey of the river. This stream 
had always run through Indian territory and even the 
French had made no detailed map. Jackson visited Fort 
Claiborne, Mt. Vernon, and other places, and took com- 
mand at Mobile, which was threatened by a British fleet 
in the Gulf. Spanish Pensacola was practically a British 
post, and soon there was a combined sea and land attack 
at Fort Bowyer, founded on Mobile Point by Wilkinson. 
It was not a large fort and consisted of a semi-circular 
battery facing the sea and connected by works with a 
bastion facing the land. It was only one hundred and 
eighty feet from one end to the other, and contained one 
hundred and thirty men under Major Lawrence. There 
were twenty pieces of small cannon, the largest being a few 
twenty-four pounder carronades. In the 12th of Sept- 
ember four British vessels appeared and two days later 
the Hermes, coming within the Bay, led the attack, which 
was answered with spirit. Soon the flag of the Hermes 
was cut away by a shot and Lawrence slopped firing until 
it was replaced. The fort flag also fell, but there was no 
pause in the battle and so it was fixed to a sponge staff 
and raised again. Then the cable of the Hermes was cut, 
and, as she drifted under the guns of the tort, the Americans 
raked her fore and aft, with the result that she went 
aground, and the crew set her on fire and left her. The 
other three vessels withdrew and went towards Pensacola. 
The burning ship lighted up the Bay, and at ten o'clock at 
night blew up. Jackson, at Mobile, heard the report and 
was afraid it was the fort, and there was much rejoicing 
upon learning the facts. Afterwards several of the Hermes' 
cannon were mounted on Fort Bowyer. 



-^^v^^lu.i^^"'*'^ 



.1 A KTf y- - 

204 Under Five Flags 



9. Capture of Fort Bozvyer. The main attack by the 

British, however, was to be in another direction and 

Jackson marched his army over to New Orleans from 

Mobile. One stop which he made was near Cottage Hill, 

^->^ at a place ever since called the Cantonment. He had 

^''V issued from Mobile famous proclamations to the people 

^,$ of Louisiana and now was able with his troops to defeat 

the British. Just below New Orleans Sam Dale witnessed 

the battle and brought the news on an eight day trip with 

Paddy, his Georgia pony, over to Mobile and beyond to 

-<- Milledgeville in the dead of winter. But while the 

^^-^ battle of New Orleans meant much, the immediate result 

' , - to Mobile was bad; for the British fleet transported the 

^ ■ army over to Dauphine Island and also occupied Mobile 

Point behind the fort. The great fleet rode at anchor in 

the Bay and outside, and, although Fort Bowyer had won 

on the first attack, there was no hope of a successful 

resistance now against thirty-eight armed vessels and 

five thousand men on shore. The British began a siege, 

advancing trenches, and finally got within forty yards of 

the fort. The loss of the Americans had been only one 

killed and ten wounded, and the British forty killed, but 

it was clear that further fighting would be useless. An 

attempt to relieve the fort from Mobile failed, and on the 

12th of February, 1815, Lawrence surrendered with 

honors of war. There was much confusion then at Mobile, 

but the British did not attempt to take the town. Jackson 

was much mortified at the surrender, but a court-martial 

afterwards acquitted Lawrence. 

10. The Peace of Ghent. The battle was fought after 
the conclusion of peace, for, although neither army knew 
of it, a treaty had been signed at Ghent on December 24. 
Some time was consumed in final arrangements. The 
British headquarters were at the Shell Banks on Dauphine 



N 



Frojn Fort Minis to Fort Bowyer 205 

Island, where not a few soldiers died as a result of the two 
battles, and were buried. By the treaty all captured 
property was to be surrendered by each side, but the 
British refused to surrender slaves on the ground that the 
English law did not recognize slavery. They would only 
agree that slaves could return to their masters if they 
wished, and a Louisiana planter got his back by telling 
them in plantation French what awful things the British 
were going to do to them, and others were no less successful. 
It was not until March that everything was arranged and 
Dauphine Island and Fort Bowyer were evacuated. 

11. The Six Militia-Men. During this period a sad 
event occurred at Mobile. Six militia-men had left the 
American army in the Creek country when they thought 
their term of enlistment had expired. The officers con- 
strued the enlistment differently, and the men when re- 
captured were condemned to death for desertion. Jackson 
confirmed the judgment and while the British fleet was 
still at anchor in the Bay the men were carried in a cart 
to what is now the northeast corner of the public park on 
the Bay, where the American army under General Win- 
chester was drawn up. The heads of the militia men were 
covered with white caps, and, as they stood by their 
coffins, a detachment of their comrades shot them down in 
due military form. Only one was not killed outright, and 
he, covered, with blood, crawled forward and sat on his 
coffin. The other five were buried, and he was removed 
to a hospital and died in a few days. This severity marred 
the rejoicing over peace; but at least peace had come, not 
onlv with the British, but with the Creeks. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

ALABAMA. 

1. Treaty of Fort Jackson. Jackson had been senL back 
to Fort Jackson to make a treaty with the Indians and 
this he did on August 9, 1814, The war had begun because 
the Indians were afraid that the Americans would take 
their lands and ended in a treaty by which the Indians 
ceded all these lands west of the line running southeast 
from Fort Jackson. The Creeks had raided as far west as 
the falls at Tuscaloosa, and in 1816 a treaty was made 
with the Choctaws also by which all lands east of the Tom- 
bigbee were ceded. In this way the most fertile pari of 
Alabama, the Black Belt, was opened to immigration. • 

2. The Territory of Alabama. The principal growth of 
Mississippi Territory was on the Mississippi River and so 
the west half of the territory was earlier on the way to 
statehood. Much discussion had already been had as to 
dividing the territory, for the senate would not consent to 
admit ihe whole as one state. .A convention was held on 
the subject on Pearl River, and finally Congress agreed to 
admit the part west of the line running from Washington 
County to where Big Bear Creek empties into the 
Tennessee. The act was accepted by a convention, and 
the state was admitted under the name of Mississippi. 
The remainder of the old territory was made into a new 
territory called Alabama March 8, 1817, and its capital 
was fixed at St. Stephens. Of 1 he original counties of the 
old territory, Alabama received only Mobile, Washington, 
Clarke and Baldwin, and Monroe County which had been 
taken from Clarke, and Montgomery was soon taken from 
Monroe. Besides this there had been old settlements in 
North Alabama, such as Madison County, from which 



Alabama 207 

other counties were soon created under the new territorial 
arrangements. The next year saw a number of new coun- 
ties, such as Tuscaloosa and Dallas. The growth of the 
country now was from north and south, for the Tennessee 
Valley had almost one half of the population of Alabama 
Territory, and Mobile and Washington, the original centres, 
had no more people than many of the new counties. The 
centre of the territory also was growing rapidly about 
Claiborne and the other settlements in Monroe County. 

3. St. Stephens as Capital. St. Stephens was the capital 
as well as the seat of the United States Land Office and of 
the Tombeckbe Bank, the first bank in the southern part of 
the territory. The legislature sat in a large frame build- 
ing, of which only the stone cellar now remains. When it 
assembled the lower house contained several members, bul 
there was an odd situation when it was found that James 
Titus of Madison County was the only senator present, 
and he is said to have "met" sometimes all by himself. 
He made motions, seconded them, debated them, put the 
cjuestions to himself and carried them. The legislature 
continued at St . Stephens for two sessions and passed a 
great many laws. Some of them related to schools, others 
to banks and others yet to steamboats, which were just 
coming into notice. 

4. The Vine and Olive Colony. The French had settled 
the country and were still stroiig at Mobile, bu: the in- 
coming population was American. Occasionally a French- 
man came, and alter the fall of Napoleon there were a 
number of Bonapariisis. A large company came to Phila- 
delphia and of these some planned to come South, and 
from them was organized a company to found a colony in 
the South West. Congress in 1817 granted them four 
townships of land at two dollars an acre on the under- 
standing that they should introduce and culiivate the vine 



208 Under Five Flags 

and olive. The colonisls cam? the oexL spring, and, when 
their vessel went aground in a slorm at the mouth of the 
Bay, they weie taken to Fort Bowyer and afterwards to 
Mobile. Collector Addni Lewis carried them up the river 
in a revenue cutter, and on the way ihey visited Judge 
Toulmin and General Gaines and stopped also at St. 
Stephens. Their land had not been surveyed, but they 
selected White Bluff, the old Chickasaw Gallery, on the 
advice of Gaines, and built cabins and named, their settle- 
ment Demopolis. Others soon came from Philadelphia, 
and there was thus a new French colony up on the old 
Tombecbe. The land was perhaps too fertile, for they 
had to cut the big canes which grew there before they 
could plant, and these soldiers were hardly fitted for 
farmers. From a mistake in their titles, they had to move 
further out and built Areola, and again tried planting 
vines. The soil was not suitable and their form of govern- 
ment w^as defective. They did not forget their French 
gaiety, however, and their social life was delightful. Visi- 
tors describe occasional balls in empire costumes, and 
Gaines found a bronze statue of Napoleon treasured in 
a kind of chapel on the grounds of one of the old generals. 
There were three hundred in the company, but hardly one 
hundred actual settlers came with their families. Al- 
though this settlement was not successful, it added a new 
centre of influence to the territory, and by later inter- 
marriages the second French colony was to be influential in 
our history. 

5. The State of Alabama. The central part of Alabama 
was now being filled rapidly from Georgia and this together 
with the growth of the Tennessee Valley made the people 
look forward to statehood. The total population was 
about one hundred thousand, the whites being double the 
negroes, and on March 2, 1819, an act of congress w^as 



Alabama 209 

passed looking to the admission of Alabama. A conven- 
tion composed of delegates from twenty-two counties met 
at Huntsville on July 5, and after a session of less than a 
month adopted a constitution, and the new state was 
admitted into the Union by an act of congress approved 
December 8, 1819. The people in the meantime had 
selected their officials, and William C, Bibb, governor of 
the territory, became governor of the new state. The 
capital did not remain at St. Stephens, for the new legis- 
lature met at Huntsville for the time being and the location 
of the permanent capital was fixed at Cahaba, a new town 
built at the mouth of the Cahaba River, a little below 
the Holy Ground. The land office had been established 
there for the sale of the territory acquired from the Creeks 
by Treaty of Fort Jackson, and there were already a good 
many people at Cahaba, and the next year it is said to have 
contained two or three thousand inhabitants. The land 
for the capital had been given to the state by the United 
States, and was suitably laid oflf, the ground for the capital 
being a large semicircle immediately on the river. A 
newspaper was established, the Alabama Press, and every- 
thing looked promising. 

6. The Groivth of the Country. The state was becoming 
a unit in a way which had been lacking heretofore. Indian 
cessions had opened all of the country to the whites except 
a small district still belonging to the Choctaws in the 
west, the large district in Alabama and Georgia inhabited 
by Creeks, and small portions in the upper corners still 
belonging to the Chickasaws and Cherokees. The land 
was being filled by immigrants, and, although the bulk of 
them were still in the northern division, a state feeling was 
growing. A new country always feels the lack of money 
and this was met not only by chartering local banks, but 
by creating a State Bank, whose branches were placed at 



210 Under Five Flags 

Mobile and other points; and, in addition to this, the United 
States Bank established branches also. Politically we 
find in South Alabama no addition to the number ot 
counties, but Baldwin, which had been between Wash- 
ington and Mobile, now made a complete somersault to 
the eastern shore. It retained Nanna Hubba Island as the 
only part of its territory west of the river. 

7. Clansel and Lakanal. All the French did not go 
up to Marengo County. Berlrand, Comte Clausel, was 
one of the favorite officers of Napoleon, and he like many 
others found safety in flight upon the final restoration 
of the Bourbons to the French throne. He came to 
Mobile, bought a home on the west side of the Bay in the 
Mandeville traxt, and lived there a quiet life. He had 
saved little from the wreck of his fortunes and, raised fruits 
and vegetables, some of which he sold in the Mobile 
market for the support ot his family. Near him lived 
another Frenchman of a very different character, Lakanal, 
one of the old republicans who had never been reconciled 
to Napoleon. But he was even less liked by the Bour- 
bons, for he had been a member of the convention which 
put Louis XVI to death. Under the republic he had 
founded an academy and fostered education in France, 
and when Napoleon fell he moved to Louisiana and was 
a distinguished educator there also. He finally came to 
Mobile and he too made his living by raising vegetables. 
These two Frenchmen, so alike in fate, are said to have 
been so opposed in politics that they did not speak. Nev- 
ertheless, they respected each other, and, when Clausel 
was -pardoned in 1820 and returned to France, he left a 
power of attorney to Lakanal to wind up his alTairs in 
America. Lakanal himself returned to France at a later 
date. Dr. Chieusse was another prominent Frenchman, 
and he also lived on the Mande\ille tract. 



Alabama 211 

8. The Charter of 1819. Fort Charlotte had been the 
centre of Mobile's life, but now that Florida had become 
American by purchase the fort was not needed. The town 
had grown all around it, and there was a desire that it be 
pulled down, which was finally ordered by an act of Con- 
gress in 1818. Streets were planned through (he old 
esplanade, and, when the sale took place, the land was 
purchased by the Mobile Lot Company and resold to 
individuals. Under no previous government had there 
been a charter for Mobile. The words town and city had 
been used without distinction, but there never was gov- 
ernment by a body of delegates from the different trades, 
as in the cities of France, or bv mavor and alderman 




WATER FRONT IN 1823 

elected by property owners, as in England. The Americans 
adopted the Spanish title iniendant for the chief officer 
of a town, but this was not done in Mobile, where the town 
commissioners had a president; for Mobile really had the 
powers and dignity of a city. On December 17, 1819, the 
State of Alabama passed an act which incorporated Mobile 
under the name of the Mayor and Aldermen of the City of 
Mobile. The charter defined the limits and gave extensive 
powers, including the regulation of the harbor. There 
was difficulty in running the limits of the old streds, for 
the Spaniards had not been particular about this, and old 
grants not only overlapped each other but overlapped the 
streets also. The matter was only gradually adjusted. 



212 Under Five Flags 

and a great step was taken when the state by an act of 
1820 declared that the north Hne of Government Street, 
that is, of the fort esplanade, was a fixed limit, and that 
Government Street should be run out westw^ardly one 
hundred feet wide. The first city map was published in 
1824 by Goodwin and Haire. 

9. The Visits of LaFayette and Bernhard. About this 
time LaFayette, the friend of Washington, made a visit 
to America and was received with great respect. He not 
only went to the places which he had known during the 
Revolutionary War, but came south to the Gulf, and finally 
went back up the Mississippi River. He entered Alabama 
from Georgia in 1826, and whites and Indians alike show- 
ered attentions on him. He took a steamer at Montgomery, 
visited Cahaba and other places, and came on down the 
river to Mobile. The city was decorated in his honor, 
a triumphal arch thrown across Dauphin and Royal, and 
Mayor Garrow made him a speech of welcome in a hotel 
on Royal, a little south of Dauphin. The enthusiasm was 
great and sincere, and there was much regret when he had 
to take a boat for New Orleans. Mobile was becoming an 
object of interest to foreigners. About this time Bern- 
hard, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar, also visited Alabama 
and went over almost the same road as LaFayette, but, 
while his rank was higher, his reception was not so cordial 
as that of the more distinguished Frenchman. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE COMING OF THE STEAMBOAT. 

1. Transportation. At the beginning of our story we 
found the Choctaws, Cherokees, Chickasaws and Musco- 
gees occupying the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin. By the 
first quarter of the nineteenth century we find that not 
only had Europeans settled the coast, but Americans 
have come from the north and east, until these Indian 
tribes have shrunk into small districts surrounded by 
whites. And yet if the whites have broken up the Indian 
nations, the Indians still prevented the Tennessee Valley 
from becoming one with the Alabama-Tombigbse Basin. 
The white settlements were in four or five groups in north, 
south and central Alabama, but they had the advantage of 
the same institutions and had the ambition to become one 
state. They were connected by wagon roads, although 
often very indifferent ones, but the chief means of travel 
now as ever before was by river. To make one state the 
parts must be better connected. In means of transpor- 
tation there had been little change from French times. 
The Indian dug-out, made by burning and scratching out a 
log, had disappeared except in the Indian country, but 
pirogues and flat-boats of different kinds were in use. 
Sailboats were on the Bay, but they could not ascend the 
rivers, because there was not sufficient wind and no room 
to tack. The only way of getting upstream was by poling 
in shallow water or by warping the boat along by pulling 
on" a rope around a tree upstream, for oars could not be 
used except with canoes. A flatboat trip from Mobile to 
Montgomery once took three months. The result was that 
country products generally came down stream in flat- 
boats, which were broken up at Mobile and sometimes 



214 Under Five Flags 

their planks used for street curbs; but the return trip with 
goods purchased at Mobile must be made by mule or 
horse, as in pioneer days. Nevertheless a self-supporting 
state might have grown up in the Alabama-Tombigbee 
Basin as well as in the ancient peninsulas of Europe, and 
the difficulty of communication with the outside world 
had much to do with the local pride and State's Rights. 

2. The First Steamboat. Just before the War of 1812 
came Fulton's great invention of the steamboat. This 
was successful in tJie waters of New York and soon there 
were workshops at Pittsburg and an occasional steamer 
on the Mississippi River. The Orleans in 1811 was the 
first and was heartily welcomed at Natchez, the capital 
of the Territory. 

The war interfered with the growth of this traffic, and 
there was no steamboat about Mobile until 1818, when the 
first was built at St. Stephens. Her name was the Alabama, 
constructed by Messrs. Deering and supplied with machin- 
ery brought from the North, but the engine was not strong 
enough to carry the boat against the current. A second 
steamer, rigged as a three masted schooner, next appeared, 
and had as little success. The first successful steamboat 
was the Tensaw of sixty tons, built in 1819 at Blakely, 
and she was long on the Alabama waters. 

3. Up the River. The great question was how to ascend 
the rivers and the first boat to solve it was the Mobile, 
brought from Boston. She ascended the Tombigbee to 
Demopolis in May, 1819, but the current above there was 
too swift and she had to tranship her goods by barge to 
Tuscaloosa. One of the Bonapartist ladies went up on 
this first trip and says that they often had to stop so that 
the vines and branches could be cut away to let them 
through. The next boat to ascend the Bigbee was the 
Harriet. The Alabama River was not ascended until 



The Coming of the Steamboat 215 

1821, when the Harriet made this trip, slopping a day each 
at Claiborne, Cahaba, and Selma, and after ten days from 
Mobile reached Montgomery, where she took a party on a 
pleasure trip higher up. No other boat went up that river 
until next year, when the Tensaw reached Selma in August, 
and the people looked at her with astonishment, although 
few were able to make up their minds 1o get aboard the 
strange craft. All the first boats mentioned were side- 
wheeled but the Tensaw, which was sternwheeled. The 
pilot stood upon the deck and guided the boat with a lever. 
A few days later in the same year the Cotton Plant began 
her career upon the Alabama, and got up to Montgomery 
towing a barge. There was not enough steam for signals, 
which were given by firing a cannon on deck, and the 
boats did not venture to run at night. After the first 
boats the number rapidly increased and we find different 
names. Duke Bernhard was on the Stetibenville and saw 
more than one wreck even at this early date. One w^as the 
Cotton Plant. 

4. The River Towns. When the rivers reach the soft 
limestone of the Black Belt they become navigable except 
so far as interrupted by sand bars in low water, and at 
this fall line the incoming Americans built towns, some of 
which became important. In this way sprang up Wet- 
umpka and Tuscaloosa, and with these at the head of 
navigation Mobile merchants soon carried on an active 
business. The culfiv^ation of cotton increased with the 
facilities for shipping it, and all settlements along the 
river grew in size and value. The foundation of these 
places dates back much earlier, but they become of 
real importance only with the invention of the steamboat. 
In the twenties the more important landings were Clai- 
borne, Cahaba, Selma, Montgomery and Wctumpka on 
the one river and St, Stephens, Demopolis, and Tuscaloosa 



216 Under Five Flags 

on the other. Tuscaloosa soon had a special importance, 
in that in 1826 the capital was removed there irom Cahaba, 
which was found subject to overflow. 

5. The Big Steamboats. Within a few years the growth 
of the Black Belt was such that the steamboats increased 
in size and speed, and many of them became real palaces. 
The river was the only mode of travel, and, as affluence 
came to the planters, the boats were made better suited 
to please them and their families, and in the thirties and 
forties came the time of famous boats. A trip upon one 
of them at the cotton season was worth taking. There 
was every comfort in the beautiful cabins, and outside 
was the ever changing scenery of bluff, forest and stream. 
Sometimes the boat would slop to wood up, or to receive 
cotton shot down the slides from the warehouse on the 
bank, and the singing of the negroes, the weirdness of the 
scene, particularly when lighted up by torches at night, 
made an impression which could never be forgotten. The 
boats were almost all side-wheelers making fast time, 
for time was more important for boats then than now in 
the railroad epoch. 

6. Alabama City. Blakely had been planned as a new 
port for the growing Alabama-Tombigbee Basin, and the 
coming of the steamboat led to the plan for another port 
on the eastern shore. It was supposed that the river 
boats could go across the Bay with their cotton as readily 
as to Mobile, and so a point lower down was selected for 
a port which would be on deeper water and nearer the mouth 
of the Bay. In the thirties, therefore, there was an elabor- 
ate plan, principally by New Orleans and New York 
people, for a city at what is now Fairhope. A large 
tract was set apart and subdivided into squares and lots 
which were sold at auction on the spot and also at Mobile 
and New Orleans. A roadway was cut through the bluff 



The Coming of the Steamboat 217 

down to the water, and, instead of dredging a channel in, 
a levee was filled out to deep water. A good deal of money 
was spent on this enterprise, but the panic of 1837 practical- 
ly put an end to it. The company was in existence up to the 
Civil War, and some work was done, but the growth of 
Mobile made il hopeless to make a success of the enterprise. 
7. Results. If the steamboats developed inland towns, 
they had even a greater effect on Mobile itself. We have 
seen how the town built a business wharf at the foot of 
Dauphin Street, and this did not long continue by itself, 
for by 1824 a dozen wharves, all owned by private citizens, 
went out into the river to the north and south of Dauphin. 
Water' Street had been early reclaimed, and in the twenties 
came Commerce Street, filled up by the city to accommo- 
date the growing trade of the place. And another kind of 
water was needed also. The question of water to drink 
had always been serious, and almost the first thing the 
Americans did was to sink wells at the intersections of 
streets, as at Dauphin and Royal, and they long remained 
in use. But they furnished only surface water after all, 
and Mobile, almost as soon as it became a city, was to 
plan for a water supply from Bayou Chateaugue or Three 
Mile Creek, as the Americans began to call it. Pine and 
cypress logs were bored and fitted to each other by iron 
tubes, and in the course of a few years wholesome water 
was supplied to the citizens. Some of these old logs have 
been dug up in recent years on Dauphin and Royal Streets 
and they were as sound as when they were put down in the 
earth. On the whole, then, the coming of the steamboat 
was a great event not only for Alabama but for her sea- 
port too. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

KING COTTON. 

1. The River Front. During the twenties Mobile began 
to take her rank as an American port. The business of 
the place was al first carried on over the city wharf at the 



MOBILE IN 1823 

foot of Dauphin Street, and as others were built the river 
front was the liveliest part of town. The shipping consist- 
ed of sailing vessels which anchored down stream, and of 
the flatboats and steamboats, which plied the rivers and 
were moored up stream. 



King Cotton 219 

Water Street was the front street of the town, as several 
east and west streets had now been extended to the river, 
and stores were built on the west side of Water. The 
principal east and west street at this time was Conti, and 
the heart of the business section was at the corner of Conti 
and Water Streets. John Forbes & Company had a canal 
nearby which gave them access to deep water, and McLos- 
key, Hagan and Company and other large houses had their 
places of business in this vicinity. The advertisements 
in the new^spapers of the day were mainly of houses on 
Conti or Water Streets. Dauphin, however, was also 
coming into favor and in the division of the city into wards 
was the dividing line. The residences were built some- 
what further we&^r=particularly along Conception Street, 
and they extended also kqi the east and. west streets. There 
was not as yet much business carried on south of Govern- 
ment. This district came into importance somewhat 
later in the twenties, when Henry Stickney built his block 
of brick stores at the southwest corner of Water and 
Church Streets. The business of the town was largely 
confined to cotton, which the steamboats were bringing 
from up the country, and which, after being compressed at 
Mobile, was shipped in sailing vessels to the eastern ports of 
America and also to Europe. The South West seemed to 
be finding its principal crop in cotton, and Mobile was 
destined to achieve its importance through this staple. 

2. Whitney^s Gin. Cotton growing could not be 
profitable unless some w^ay was devised for getting the 
seed out of the lint, and this had been accomplished in 
Georgia. Eli Whitney of Connecticut was living on a 
plantation there and in 1793 invented a machine which by 
means of saw teeth would take the lint and leave behind 
the seed, which could not get through the bars. He 
did not patent his invention or get proper results from it 



220 Under Five Flags 

for himself, but his machine gradually made cotton planting 
more paying than had been dreamed. A man had been 
able to seed one pound of cotton a day, but now one engine, 
or "gin," as it was abbreviated, was able to seed three 
hundred pounds. This was the reason the South West was 
so sought after, and by the' twenties the lands were taken 
up that were accessible to the steamboats. 

3. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. Much of the 
most fertile territory of Alabama still remained in Indian 
hands. They were now surrounded by white settlements 
and the whites coveted their farms. Many of the Indians 
had become farmers under teaching of missionaries and 
government agents, and looked forward to being citizens. 
But the Anglo-Saxons have never mixed upon equal terms 
with darker races, and efforts began throughout the 
Southern States to force the Indians to leave. It was 
declared that state laws controlled them as well as the 
whites, and their old customs were interfered with. It 
seemed impossible to keep the white man from encroaching, 
and the result was friction between the races and in some 
places between the states and the general government. 
At last the Choctaws were induced in the famous Treaty of 
Dancing Rabbit Creek of 1830 to sell their lands and move 
beyond the Mississippi. The same steps were taken 
with the Creeks, but there was more trouble with them, and 
the Mobile Rifle Company and soldiers from elsewhere 
had to be sent up the river by steamboat and march across 
to southeast Alabama before quiet was restored. It 
required several years to carry out this transfer to Indian 
Territory, which was done under the supervision of George 
S. Gaines, and to survey the new lands and get them on the 
market. Another land office was set up at Montgomery in 
1832 and the making of counties began anew. 



King Cotton 221 

4. Increase of Crops. From this time on nothing re- 
tarded the growth of the interior and the consequent 
improvement of ils seaport. When Alabama became a 
state the ruling section was the Tennessee Valley, for it 
had grown taster than any other district, but with the 
increase in cotton plantations Central Alabama became 
even more important, and this was shared by its seaport. 
It is true that the pine barrens around Mobile were not 
productive, but the planters of the interior shipped every- 
thing to the city and brought all supplies from there, 
and so Mobile was not so much the largest city as the one 
metropolis of the whole river basin. 

5. The Buildings of the Thirties. The original town was 
too small for the growing cotton business, and the first 
great step in its expansion was taken in 1830 when the 
Orange Grove Tract was subdivided into city lots and sold 
to purchasers. This turned the northern part of Mobile 
into a cotton district and afforded a field for the building 
of warehouses, compresses and everything connected with 
the business. St. Michael was the northern street of the 
old town closest to the cotton district, sol hat on it grew up 
much of the shipping and insurance connected with cotton, 
and after a while so many Englishmen had offices there 
that it came to be known as the British Channel. Business 
of all kinds improved so much that 1836 was counted as 
the most flourishing year in the history of the city. There , 
had been hotels along Royal Street, such as the Alabama 
where the Baltic House stands and the United States Hotel 
where the old church had been, but now the handsome 
Mansion House was put up on Royal Street and Conti, 
and its pillars can still be seen in the present theatre 
building. The old church had been sold and a cathedral 
begun in the midst of the grave-yard on Dauphin and 
Claiborne, and there gradually rose the handsome edifice 



222 



Under Five Flags 



which we know. The grave-yard was too close to town 
and burials were discontinued, and land for a new one was 
bought in 1818 south of Government and west of Wilkinson. 
It was divided into three parts. The southern was for the 
Catholics, the northern for the Prolestants, and the 
western was the Potter's Field. The Protestants had in 
the early twenties built a Union Church of wood at the 
northwest corner of St. Emanuel and the street which was 




GARROW HOUSE, 1819 

called Church from it, and, as most of the incoming Amer- 
icans were Protestants, the different denominations gradu- 
ally separated from this mother church. And charity was 
abroad. The Female Benevolent Society was organized 
in 1829 to care for the poor and sick and its usefulnees was 
much increased when in 1835 Henry Hitchcock donated 
land and helped erect the little brick houses called the 



King Cotton 223 

Widows' Row. These for over sixty years sheltered 
many, and with the Httle gardens attached gave pleasant 
and healthful occupation to destitute and deserving 
women. 

6. Lumber and Naval Stores. If the cotton came from 
the more fertile Black Belt, lumber could only be obtained 
from the pine forests of the coast. These had hardly 
been touched in colonial days, but now the Americans set 
to work in earnest, either clearing them or obtaining naval 
stores in abundance. While it never rose to the same 
importance as cotton, the lumber businessof South Alabama 
was a valuable asset to Mobile trom early times. 

7. Suburbs. Yellow fever was the greatest drawback 
which Mobile suffered in those days, and the epidemics 
were often fatal. No cure was known, except that the 
disease did not seem to flourish in the pine woods or on 
the hills, and so the elevated land west of Mobile came in 
demand for summer residences, the more especially as it 
was a very pleasant country in itself. In this way Spring 
Hill was platted in the thirties, and its many attractive 
residences were built, and also only less frequented 
was Cottage Hill, separated on the north from Spring Hill 
by Jackson's old Cantonment. One of the first highways 
opened by Mobile in the twenties was Spring Hill Avenue, 
running from Dauphin Street northwestwardly lo Three 
Mile Creek, which it crossed and then recrossed lo reach 
Spring Hill. Subsequently this route was improved and 
the road did not cross the Creek. Later yet a shell road 
parallel to this avenue was built by private subscription 
and saw many fast horses and fine vehicles. The Bay 
shore was also built up, and not only did handsome resi- 
dences adorn its western bank, but a shell road was run 
along its shore as a continuation of St. Emanuel Street, 
and on it were pleasure resorts of all kinds. Many people 



224 Under Five Flags 

had summer residences across ihe Bay at the place called 
the Village, lower at Howard's, at Montrose where the 
British troops once encamped, and at Point Clear, jutting 
out into the Bay, was built a hotel which became a favorite 
resort of Mobilians in the summer. These places were 
reached by steamboats from town. 

8. The Cowbellians. The Latin element was gradually 
yielding to the incoming Saxon, but it modified the Saxon 
in blood and customs. One of its interesting outcrops, a 
survival oi French love for the spectacular, was the forming 
of a famous secret society in 1831. The story runs that 
Michael Krafft and some jolly friends were coming home 
long after midnight one New Year's eve and broke open a 
hardware store for fun. From it they secured horns, 
rakes, cowbells and other articles, and with them paraded 
the streets, making the night hideous. Not only was 
nothing done to them, but much amusement was afforded. 
This Cowbellian de Rakin Society repeated its performance 
on next New Year's Eve, and finally became one of the 
institutions of Mobile. It had a parade and gave a masked 
balls. A similar organization followed in 1842 named the 
Strikers Independent Society, another later called the 
T. D. S. 

9. Forts. The cotton and lumber of Mobile generally 
went abroad on foreign ships, especially those from Great 
Britain. The port, therefore, became ot great importance, 
and the United States recognized this from an early day 
by the Coast Survey, by placing a lighthouse on Choctaw 
Point, and by building a new fort on Mobile Point. Fort 
Bowyer had been of wood and could not be kept up, and 
so in ths thirties the United States built a new and extensive 
fortification, whose bricks were made on the western 
shore of the Bay and the lime for its mortar came from the 
oyster shells of Dauphine Island and vicinity. Bearing 



King Cotton 225 

the date of 1837 and named Fort Morgan, this commanded 
the Bay, the Gulf and the channel ofT Mobile Point. The 
main channel now ran by Mobile Point and it was not 
deemed necessary to fortify Dauphine Island for fifteen 
years to come. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

FLUSH TIMES AND WHAT FOLLOWED. 

1. The Thirties. From the early thirties Mobile as- 
sumed the commanding position which it maintained 
throughout American period. People were attracted to 
the growing port as they nevsr had been before and all 
the elemsnts of city lite came at a bound. The first ware- 
houses were on Royal and elsewhere in the centre of town, 
but owners of the old Spanish tracts to the north and south 
early subdivided their lands and contended for the growing 
business. Conception Street was still the principal resi- 
dence avenue, but Government, one hundred feet wide, 
was running farther and farther to the west. A street, 
named Ann for A. H. Gazzam's mother, was laid out two miles 
from the river and at its intersection with Government 
Gazzam put up a handsome residence, while next door 
Pinney built his college, and half way to town the Presby- 
terian minister "Wm. T. Hamilton erected a home and 
planted oaks and magnolias which live until now. It is 
true that the old part of town was made up of one-story 
houses, often raised high up on a brick basement, and 
many of the people still spoke French and lived quiet, 
unobtrusive lives; but the bustling Americans were coming 
fast, stores of brick were building, and everything betokened 
a new kind of city from the Creole town of the past. 

2. The Banks. The basis of all business is the exchange 
of one form of labor, or its product, for another, aild this 
can be carried on readily only by means of money; for 
money measures the value of what one has to sell and of 
what he wants to buy. In these early days of Alabama 
wealth consisted in land, slaves and cotton, and, while 
the general government was weak and could not provide 



Flush Times and What Followed 227 

enough gold and silver for the circulating medium, the 
want was supplied by banks, which issued paper maney. 
So long as this could be turned into gold and silver on de- 
mand it served every purpose of money. The United 
States had a bank, with a branch at Mobile, and each 
state chartered private banks. The first in Alabama was 
one at Huntsville, and the second the Tombeckbe Bank at 
St. Stephens, both in the time of the Territory. It was a 
great step in advance when the Bank of Mobile was 
chartered in 1818, for it had a long line of able officers. 
Its first location was on Government next to the present 
court house and when it grew to be one of the great banks 
of the Union it erected for itself the building a1 the north- 
east corner of Royal and Conti Streets, at first with a 
cupola. In 1823 the Bank of the Stale of Alabama was 
chartered and the State put into its capital stock money 
coming from state lands and also afterwards the proceeds 
of bonds. By 1832 branches were established at Decatur, 
Montgomery and Mobile, and a few years later at Hunts- 
ville. The branch at Mobile used the handsome building 
at the northwest corner of St. Francis and Royal Streets. 
The Mobile banks were well managed and stood high 
throughout the United States. 

3. Flush Times. The buildings of the thirties were an 
index of the prosperity of the people. The planters lived 
handsomely in the country during the planting season, 
wilh every luxury which money could supply, and during 
the winter many of them brought their families down the 
river to Mobile to enjoy the schools and gaieties of the city. 
The great desire of every planter was to get more land 
and more negroes, for this meant increased production of 
cotton. Many raised corn and hogs and other supplies, 
but the chief reliance was upon cotton. This produced a 
very interesting but peculiar kind of civilization. 



228 Under 'Five Flags 

Manufactures were harcily thought of because the same 
time and money put in agriculture would produce greater 
results. The numerous banks and the flood of paper money 
throughout the South made it easy to go into new ventures, 
and in course ot time many people forgot that there might 
be reverses. At Mobile property increased to values 
which it has hardly since regained. Lands in the suburbs 
were bought up by capitalists and subdivided. The 
Kennedys early began selling lots in the Price Claim, the 
Favre Tract was subdivided in 1821, and the Orange 
Grove Tract was sold in lots in 1831 and became the seat 
of the cotton business. In the thirties the Bernoudy 
Tract and the Choctaw Point Tract were also platted off 
and sold. Even Blakely's marsh island opposite the city 
was subdivided, and Mobile extended in all directions. 
Its main reliance was on cotton from up the rivers. In 
1830 upwards of one hundred thousand bales were handled, 
in 1835 there were about two hundred thousand, in 1837 
they exceeded three hundred thousand, and by 1840 they 
reached four hundred and forty thousand bales. There 
were lumber mills and cotton compresses, and foundries 
were also established, but beyond this little was done 
in the way of manufacturing, for commierce confined itself 
to raw materials. Culture was not neglected in the growing 
city, and from 1835 dates the literary club known as the 
Franklin Society, whose library was extensive. There was 
no gayer place in the winter time than Mobile. Cotton 
began coming in about September and the last bales were 
about May, making a nine months busy season, with a 
long vacation during the hot months of summer, when 
many citizens went North. 

Jf. New People. The opening of the Indian lands 
brought many new people to Alabama, and the prosperity 
which tollowed attracted many to her seaport. All 



Flush Times and What Followed 



229 



through her history Mobile has been indebted to the 
country for many of her best people, and at no time was 
this truer than in the thirties. Some came from other 
states, but most came to the city after residence in the 
country. St. Stephens continued in the twenties her 
notable additions in the persons of J. F. Ross, who had 
been state treasurer, and William Crawford, who had been 




A GOVERNMENT STREET HOME OF THE THIRTIES 



Federal land commissioner, and these were shortly followed 
by Henry Hitchcock, grandson of Ethan Allen ot Vermont, 
and George S. Gaines, the old Indian agent now transformed 
into the president of the Branch Bank of the United 
States. There was also here in the twenties Thaddeus 
Sanford from New York, and in the early thirties Charles 
C. Langdon of Connecticut, the tather of the Whig party 



230 Under Five Flags 

in Alabama and president of its first convention in 1838. 
Almost at the same fime came John Forsyth of Georgia, 
whose father when minister to Spain had much to do with 
the treaty by which Florida became American, In the 
thirties the bar of Mobile received Judge Henry Goldth- 
waite, formerly of Boston, as well as William D. Dunn, of 
Tennessee, and Judge Abner S. Lipscomb, like Hitchcock 
already prominent in the state, now moved here from St. 
Stephens. About the sarrre time George N. Stewart 
made Mobile his home. He had come trom Pennsylvania 
much earlier as secretary of the Vine and Olive Company 
and after the failure of that enterprise he had settled in 
Tuscaloosa. These last four moved to Mobile in 1835, 
and the same year Percy Walker came from Madison 
County, and Octavia Walton came, a young Georgia girl, 
who was to be well known later as the wife ot Dr. H. S. 
LeVert. There followed next year Josiah C. Nott from 
South Carolina, who was to be one of the great physicians 
of the day, and of course there were many others beside 
professional men. Percy Walker was at first a druggist, 
and about the same time came Duke W. Goodman trom 
South Carolina, to be a well known merchant, Daniel 
Wheeler from England and F. G. Kimball from New Eng- 
land. The experiences ot Gavin Yuille, a baker from North 
Carolina, were typical. He travelled by wagon along the 
dirt roads to Montgomery, where he took a steamboat to 
Mobile, and began on Dauphin Street the bakery business 
which has been carried on by his successors ever since. 
When the great fire of 1839 burned him out, he moved to 
his well known site on Go\ernemnt. Gustavus Horton 
of Boston was sent to Mobile in 1835 to collect some claims 
and preferred it to the little, struggling towns of Chicago 
and St. Louis, and settled here, as did Miles Treat, so 
long known in the furniture business. In 1837 came one o* 



Flush Times and What Followed 231 

the most distinguished men who has ever hved in Mobile, 
John A. Campbell of Georgia, who had already resided at 
Montgomery. The population increased from 3,194 in 
1830 to 12,672 in 1840. 

5. Water Works. The rights of the Aqueduct Company, 
which had been incorporated in 1820, were transferred to 
the city of Mobile by a law passed in 1824. The city 
acquired lands at Spring Hill on which were suitable 
springs, and from time to time laid pipes, first of logs and 
afterwards of iron, until there were in 1836 some 22,000 
feet of different sizes. Henry Hitchcock made an offer 
to lease this property for twenty years, agreeing to operate 
the water works and supply the citizens with water. This 
was accepted and Hitchcock did a good deal of work, 
obtaining the assistance of Albert Stein, a well known 
engineer. New arrangements were made the next year, 
and after the death of Hitchcock the city in 1840 made an 
agreement with Albert Stein, by which all rights to supply 
water from Three Mile Creek were vested in him for 
twenty years. Further ditches were dug at Spring Hill, 
the works extended, a reservoir built on Spring Hill Avenue, 
and iron pipes laid in the thickly settled parts of Mobile, 
which supplied as good water as could be found anywhere. 
There was a clause in the agreement that at the end of the 
lease the city should pay Stein the actual value of the water 
works, but when this time came the lease, was renewed for 
a longer period, and the Stein control lasted until after 
the Civil War. 

6. Gas Works. Mobilians had at the beginning used 
candles and afterwards lamps in their homes, but there 
had not been any system for lighting the streets. In 
Europe lamps had been hung across the highways, but 
this had not been done in Mobile except on special occa- 
sions. The invention of gas was made use of in New York 



232 Under Five Flags 

in 1823, but this depended on coal. James H. Caldwell 
introduced gas in New Orleans in 1835 and made a contract 
with the city of Mobile to erect gas works and to light the 
city of Mobile tor thirty years. In consequence Caldwell 
bought land where Stone Street crosses Bayou Marmotte, 
built suitable retorts and tanks and laid pipes, by means 
of which the city and private residences were lighted 
in 1836. The coal both at New Orleans and Mobile first 
came by water from Pittsburg, but the English geologist 
Sir Charles Lyell visited Alabama in the forties and called 
public attention to the coal beds about the Warrior River, 
and in 1849 the State geologist Michael Tuomey made a 
celebrated report upon the subject. From that time 
some oi the supply ot fuel was native, but Alabama coal 
was not used for gas until just before the Civil War. 

7. The Panic of 1837. The South West had grown 
prodigiously in the few years since the removal of the 
Indians, when suddenly the business of the country was 
rudely shaken. There had been a great deal of speculation 
in lands and when President Jackson prevented the re- 
charter of the Bank ot the United States it affected all the 
banks of the Union. The trustees of the United States 
Bank began to collect what was due that institution, and 
many people found that they could not pay. A good many 
of the other institutions had loaned more money than they 
could collect, and in addition to this doubt was thrown on 
the methods of the State Bank. The general result was 
panic and hard times. Business of every kind was inter- 
fered with. Such men as Henry Hitchcock failed, and much 
property passed into the hands of the banks. This is 
generally spoken of as the Panic of 1837, but like many 
other things the date is only approximate. It began in 
1837, but it lasted for almost ten years, and in one way 
or another affected every business and every family. 



Flush Times and What Followed 233 

8. Fire Companies. The bane of cities, especially in 
America, has been fires, which sometimes are uncontrollable, 
Mobile was a sufferer from this cause, and, as its citizens 
had in early times organized strong military companies to 
fight the Indians, so now they formed fire companies to 
fight conflagrations. The extinction of the fires was 
first in the hands of fire wardens, — officials in uniform 
and carrying long red poles crowned with gilt balls. They 
enforced laws to prevent fires, saw that citizens had leather 
buckets, and called on any and every one to work at fires. 
Regular fire companies brought a change of system. 
The Creole and Neptune fire companies were formed in 
1819, when there was a great fire, and they were to have 
long and useful lives. In 1827 there was also a great 
fire and then in 1833 the Franklin Fire Company No. 3 
was organized, three years later Merchants Fire Company 
No. 4, and in two years more Torrent No. 5 and Phoenix 
No. 6. These were made up of many of the best men of 
the place and did active service. The next year two more, 
Mechanics No. 7 and Hook and Ladder No. 1, were organ- 
ized, for the growth of the city made them necessary. 
In 1838 the companies formed the Mobile Fire Department 
Association to take care of sick and infirm members, and 
in time this came to be a very useful institution. Five 
years later one more company, Washington No. 8, was 
created, the last except La Fayette No. 9, formed after 
the Civil War. In 1860 the city had 153 fire plugs. These 
companies had social features as well as hard work, for 
there were monthly meetings, occasional contests, and an 
annual parade and celebration on the ninth of April. 
While the organizations were made up of volunteers, they 
were really part of the city government, for the authorities 
annually appointed a general engineer and assistants for 
what came to be known as the Mobile Fire Department. 



234 Under Five Flags 

9. The Fires of 1839. There was need of such com- 
panies. In the 1827 fire the heart of the town was burnt 
out from the river to St. Emanuel Street, and from St. 
Francis Street almost down to Government. As the town 
was growing rapidly at the time, however, the damage 
was soon made up, and, as the small frame Creole houses 
gave way to brick buildings, the fire was in a measure a 
blessing. In 1839 was a different story to tell, for two 
conflagrations came at a time when the city was greatly 
depressed. The first burned the Government Street 
Hotel, a magnificent structure then building at the north- 
east corner of that street and Royal, resembling somewhat 
the Barton Academy, and passed on to consume the hand- 
some Mansion House adjoining. Royal Street did not 
stop the flames, tor they crossed to the city buildings at 
St. Emanuel Street, where was the fire bell tower, and left 
all a smoking ruin. It was thought at the time that the 
fires were incendiary, for a few nights later a still more 
disastrous conflagration began at St. Emanuel, burned 
both sides of Dauphin, and swept over to St. Francis 
Street and on towards the west. A house at the northwest 
corner of Franklin and Dauphin was blown up to stop its 
spread, and there indeed it stopped. In these cases, too, 
old French and Spanish 'houses were burned, but business 
was at the lowest ebb, credit was unknown, and few 
people could rebuild. There was difiiculty in taking 
care of the homeless, and the destitution was not over- 
stated in Percy Walker's famous speech in the legislature, 
where he was a member from Mobile. 

10. Yellow Fever. In 1837 there was fever, and on top 
of the fires of 1839 came one of the greatest epidemics in 
the history of the city, for public conditions following the 
fire were such that the spread of the disease was increased. 
It was considered almost certain death to nurse a yellow 




^ y c o 



Flush Times and What Followed 235 

fever patient, but here as so often human nature showed 
heroism, forgetting self in the service of others. People 
died by the dozen every day, and nurses and medicines 
were scarce. Many people went away, but from this time 
dates the noble relief association called the Can't-Get- 
Away Club. As usual the disease did not cease to find 
victims until frost, and then the refugees returned home, 
and began the sad work of building up their city. 

11. The Protestant Orphan Asylum. The good women of 
Mobile not only helped the sick, but gathered about them 
the orphans who were left by the terrible visitation. The 
need for a home for them was apparent and under such 
ladies as Mrs. Dr. Hamilton the Protestant Orphan Asylum 
was organized in 1839. It was controlled by lady delegates 
from each of the denominations and took conijilete charge 
of the little ones. In the course of time the ladies were 
able to secure a large lot on Dauphin and in 1852 built the 
commodious brick structure which still carries on its work 
of charity. 

12. A Bankrupt City. An American city is a corpora- 
tion, and the usual practice is for it not only to govern the 
people but to make public improvements on borrowed 
money. While Mobile was still a town small amounts 
of money were borrowed from time to time for different 
purposes, but these loans were soon paid back. The first 
important issue of bonds was thirty thousand dollars in 
1830, increased four years later to two hundred thousand 
and again in 1836 to as much more, expended for grading 
and shelling the streets and other public uses. By 1839 
the total debt was five hundred and thirteen thousand 
dollars. This was increased when the interest could not 
be paid, and by such expenses as putting up a new Guard 
house and tower in the place of the one recently burned. 
The city charter was amended after the great fires, but not 



236 Under Five Flags 

much good resulted, for a committee of the city boards 
investigated affairs and everything was found in confusion. 
A better system was begun, but this did not lessen tlie old 
debt. Attempts were made to settle with creditors, and 
amongst the items turned over to trustees for that purpose 
was the land which had been set apart for a public square. 
It was clear that a sale of property at that time would 
bring very little, however, and the creditors finally agreed 
to a settlement, which was ratified by the legislature in 
1843. Certain taxes were provided to pay the interest 
and make reductions on the debt, and this fund was kept 
separate in bank. S. P. BuUard was commissioner to 
carry out the arrangement. He secured the assent of 
three quarters of the creditors and bonds amounting to 
$707,191.18 were issued. No property was sold and the 
extension enabled the city to take advantage of better 
times, which came after a while. These particular bonds 
have long since passed out of existence, but the debt 
which they represented is part of the present indebtedness 
of Mobile. 

13. Granfs Pass. The commercial relations of Mobile 
and New Orleans were always intimate. In colonial 
times the shallow waters of Mississippi Sound and Lake 
Pontchartrain were used, but under the Americans vessels 
were larger and to reach New Orleans many had to go out- 
side of Dauphine Island into the Gulf and steam up the 
Mississippi River. Some of the passenger traffic between 
the two places was carried on by boat from Portersville to 
Lake Pontchartrain, the rest of the way being by the 
Pontchartrain Railroad to New Orleans and by the Por- 
tersville stage line to Mobile. So many transfers, however, 
were unpleasant, and the general government in 1827 
endeavored to dredge a channel from Mobile Bay to the 
Sound ; but it was finally given up as impracticable. A man 



Flush Times and What Folloived 237 

named John Grant, lately of Baltimore, who had worked 
on the Choctaw Point Pass, was satisfied a channel 
could be made. He had lived both at Mobile and New 
Orleans and in 1839 obtained an act of legislature of Ala- 
bama which gave him the right to dig a pass and charge 
tolls on the traffic through it. It required a large amount 
of money, but he finally succeeded in making a channel 
through with a depth ot five feet. Freight' rates between 
Mobile and New Orleans immediately fell about one-third, 
and traffic was henceforth almost altogether carried on 
through Grant's Pass. The mail which had gone by Por- 
tersville was now taken by through steamers from Mobile 
to Lake Pontchartrain, originating the favorite and attrac- 
tive Mail Line, in which Grant was a large owner. Not 
only was this due to the energy of one man, but due to 
him at a time when everything looked black around him. 
Grant's Pass was one of the first things pointing forward 
to a brighter day. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 



THE CHURCHES. 



J. The Churches. Except during the brief rule of the 
British in West Florida, religion has throughout our story 
been represented by the Catholics. With the coming of the 

Americans at the end of 
the eighteenth century this 
was changed. The church 
ceased to have any connec- 
tion with the state, but the 
Catholics maintained their 
church at Conti and Royal 
until this became the heart 
of the business section, 
when it was deemed best to 
sell and move the church 
itself to the old cemetery 
west of Jackson. There we 
have seen a stately cathe- 
dral rise on the plans of 
Michael Portier, a French- 
man beloved by the whole 
city, the first bishop of the 
see of Mobile, which had 
been established in 1826. 
For many years there were 
only the foundations of the building, then came the walls 
and roof, while the majestic pillars have been erected since, 
the Civil War. Under this cathedral are buried its 
bishops and about it have grown up different institutions 
connected with the church, such as an orphan asylum, the 
bishop's residence, and schools. As the city grew one 




BISHOP MICHAEL PORTIER 



The Churches 239 

church was not enough, and dififerent parishes have been 
cut off, but remaining under the control of the bishop. 
The first was St. Vincent de Paul built in 1848 on Charleston 
Street in the midst of a large laboring population, and then 
followed after ten years St. Joseph's on Spring Hill Avenue. 
Among the priests may be mentioned Father C. T. O'Cal- 
laghan at St. Vincent's, and Father Imsand at St. Joseph's. 
The Catholic Cemetery at Toulminville dates from 1848. 
Rev. John Quinlan succeeded as bishop upon the death of 
Bishop Portier in 1859 and lived until 1883. 

2. The Protestants. The first Protestant preacher in 
the neighborhood of Mobile was the Methodist Lorenzo 
Dow, at Tensaw, but the Congregationalists had already 
been strong on the Mississippi River. The revivals at the 
beginning of the nineteenth century had a strong influence 
in the South West, and affected all Protestants. Missionary 
movements of all denominations kept pace with great 
immigration to the Gulf Coast. Each had its general 
governing body in the east and local bodies, such as con- 
ferences or presbyteries, and in this way each church was 
readily extended to the new settlements, and state organiza- 
tions of each denomination date from the early twenties. 

They united in Mobile at the northwest corner of St. 
Emanuel and Church Streets in what was known as the 
Union Church, and from there branched off congregations 
which have founded the different Protestant churches 
in Mobile. Each church as it has been founded has had 
flourishing sunday schools and other benevolent institu- 
tions. They joined in establishing the Y. M. C. A. in 
1856 and from the forties maintained the Seamen's Bethel. 

3. The Presbyterians. While the Presbyterians have 
never been the strongest denomination, they have always 
been among the most active, and even while the Union 
Church was in general use the Presbyterian preacher J. B. 



240 



Under Five Flans 



Warren was collecting funds and giving all he had in 1828 
to build a church next east of the present Yuille's bakery. 
In the early thirties William T. Hamilton, pastor of the 
First Presbyterian Church of Newark, N. J., came South 
for his health and was made pastor of this congregation. 
Among its members were such men as Henry Hitchcock, 
and they built in 1836 and 1837 the church still standing 
at the northwest corner of Government and Jackson. As 

first constructed it had a 
tower in which was the 
city fire bell, but the storm 
of 1852 injured the belfry 
and it was removed. In 
1859 came J. Ralston Bur- 
gett from Ohio, and he 
was to be pastor for forty 
years. At different times 
this congregation has prov- 
ed to be the mother-church 
for others, and from it went 
out in 1842 the second 
Presbyterian Church, 
which stood until after the 
Civil War at the northeast 
corner of St. Francis and 
Conception, and in 1853 
the third church, on Jack- 
son and St. Michael Sts. 
These two after the War 
became the Jackson Street Church, now the Central 
Presbyterian. 

4- The Methodists. The Methodists were strong enough 
to build in the thirties what has been known as the Bee 
Hive at the southwest corner of Franklin and St. Michael, 




DR. J. K. BLKt.l.l 



The Churches 



241 



from which branched in 1842 the St. Francis Street Church. 
The Methodists have always been a powerful element in 
Mobile life, and all of the strongest men in the Alabama 
Conference have been at Mobile from time to time. Among 
the best known should be mentioned Philip P. Neely, 
whose sermons have been collected, in book form, T. T. 
Dorman, and. W. H. Milburn, the blind, preacher. Milburn 
before and after the War was chaplain of Congress and has 
written well known books telling of his life in the South. 

5. The Episcopalians. 
The Episcopalians have 
had a large proportion of 
prominent men. • They re- 
mained, in the old church 
on St. Emanuel Street after 
the others left, but, when 
the building fell into bad 
repair, worshipped at the 
southwest corner of Jack- 
son and St. Francis Street 
until burned, out in the 
fires of 1839. Two years 
later they built Christ 
Church, which has been a 
mother-church for the 
Episcopalians. Under it 
are buried, several of its 
pastors. In 1847 was es- 
tablished. Trinity Church 
to the north and. in 1852 St. 

John's among the working classes in the southern part of 
the city. Trinity's rector for a long time was J. A. Massey, 
who returned after the Civil War, and at St. John's was 
J. H. Ingraham, who, besides being an efficient pastor, 




BISHOP 



WILMER 



242 Under Five Flags 

wrote (but not in Mobile) the famous books "Pillar of 
Fire" and "Throne of the House of David." As Mobile 
was the strongest city in this denomination, the Episco- 
palians, like the Catholics, finally secured the advantage 
of a resident bishop. This was from 1861 Richard Hooker 
Wilmer, of Virginia, a much beloved citizen. He lived at 
Spring Hill, where his churches gave him a handsome home. 

6. The Baptists. The Baptists were early in the Ala- 
bama-Tombigbee Basin, but their stronghold at first was 
rather in the country than the city. They were first on 
St. Anthony Street, and built on St. Francis in the forties, 
and have been active in church life in Mobile. The 
St. Francis Street Church, like the Government Street and 
Christ Church, had a belfry for a long time. The Baptists 
did not subdivide before the War, and remained, in one large 
church, except that in the fifties they built a mission at 
Broad Street and Spring Hill Road. 

7. Other Denominations. Other Protestant denomina- 
tions have had a foothold in Mobile, but have been less 
successful. The Unitarians numbered some prominent 
citizens, such as Charles P. Gage, and in the fifties built 
a church on Jackson second north of St. Michael. One 
of their pastors was John Lord, who afterwards wrote 
well known work "Beacon Lights of History." The 
congregation, however, was not strong in numbers, and 
the building was afterwards turned into a Music Hall. 

8. The Jews. We have had Jews at Mobile from 
British times, coming from Germany, Portugal and else- 
where. A number came from Germany in the forties on 
account of the revolutionary movements in Europe, and to 
them was due the founding in 1844 of the congregation 
known as the Gates of Heaven. The Jews had their own 
section in Magnolia Cemetery two years earlier. Services 
were held at different places, but the first synagogue was 



The Churches 243 

dedicated in 1846 on St. Emanuel Street next to Christ 
Church. Among their prominent men were I. I. Jones 
and the lawyer Philip Phillips, and by 1853 they had so 
outgrown their quarters that they bought the Music Hall 
on Jackson Street. After a fire this was rebuilt and used 
as a synagogue for about fifty years. 

9. Negroes. While the law as a mater of prudence 
forbade the assemblage of more than four negroes together, 
they enjoyed religious privileges, whether on the plantation 
or in town. Every white church opened its galleries to 
the servants of the members, and often the fervent singing 
of the black people excelled that of their white masters 
on the floor below. In Mobile several denominations 
set up negro churches, visited by the white ministers, and 
sometimes with regular white preachers of their own. 
The Episcopalians in this way established the Church of 
the Good Shepherd in 1854 and the Methodists had two 
negro churches. One was the State Street Church, located 
on that street near Lawrence, and the other was Little 
Zion, at the northeast corner of Church and Dearborn, 
which had white pastors. One of the best known congre- 
gations was that which the Baptists maintained under the 
name of the African Church, at the southwest corner of 
Chestnut and Cleveland Streets. This was a plain but com- 
modious square building with large gallery, and has not 
been changed since in any material respect. The re- 
ligious exercises of the negroes were more emotional than 
those of the white people. The singing was melodious, 
and the responses to the preacher took the form of shouting, 
especially among the Methodists. Conversion was called 
"Coming through." One affected by religion would be 
much depressed tor days at a time, when suddenly, no mat- 
ter what he was doing, he might drop everything and shout 
or fall in a trance. Something similar would sometimes 



244 Under Five Flags 

happen during the regular church services. These services 
and also the baptizing in Three Mile Creek or elsewhere 
among the Baptists were noisy if earnest affairs, and attract- 
ed crowds from every quarter. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

THE MOBILE & OHIO RAILROAD. 

1. Canals and Railways. In colonial days the people 
had first Hved near the seacoast and afterwards as popu- 
lation increased they moved up the larger rivers. In 
course of time the settlements were connected by roads, 
but it long seemed that the Apalachian mountain range 
must bound English colonies on the west. The Mississippi 
and its tributaries ran through French and Spanish country 
and even when the Americans crossed the mountains to the 
Ohio River they traded with the Spaniards of the Gulf. 
To overcome this the general government built what was 
called the National Road from the Potomac over the moun- 
tains to the country northwest of the Ohio, and canals 
were talked of to connect the Mississippi Valley with the 
Atlantic. Canals in fact were begun in Virginia and 
Pennsylvanis, but New York's Erie Canal, opened in 1825 
from the Hudson River to Lake Erie, was the most success- 
ful one. The Federal government gave lands to aid in 
these plans, but in the early thirties came a different mode 
of transportation. This was the railroad. At first the 
railway was used to connect river basins or to run from 
one large city to another and bore names accordingly. 
South Carolina built one from Charleston to Augusta in 
the early thirties, and the State of Georgia in 1845 built 
another from Savannah to a point on the Chattahoochee 
afterwards called Atlanta. Charleston saw her trade 
lessening and that of New York growing on account of 
canals and railroads, and under the leadership of Hayne 
sought to extend her railroad through the mountain 
country just ceded by the Chcrokees until it should reach 
Nashville and the Ohio Valley. The plan fell through, 



246 



Under Five Flags 



but it showed the way for other enterprises. The roads 
which were actually built from Savannah and Charleston 
to the northwest joined at Atlanta, and, after Georgia 
finished her road to Chattanooga in 1851, brought a great 
deal of business to these cities. They showed that rail- 
roads could rival rivers. 

2. Alabama Railroads. These railroads were primitive 
in construction and methods. At first they consisted 
of long strips of iron nailed to wooden sleepers, and the 
engines were small and could go only a few miles an hour. 
The trains were composed of both passenger and freight 




RAILROAD MONEY 



cars, but they were a great improvemicnt on the old wagons 
and dirt roads of the country, and were much used. Boats 
were pleasanter, but rivers were uncertain and the early 
steamers were not safe. The first railroad in Alabama was 
one around the Mussel Shoals from Tuscumbia to Decatur. 
It was not a steam railroad at first, although finally it 
became a part of the system by which Gen. E. P. Gaines 
planned to connect Memphis with Charleston. Another 
g^rly railroad was the West Point Railroad of 1853 from 
]y[ontgomery to join the Georgia Railroad, but this tended 



The Mobile & Ohio Railroad 



247 



to take the business of the East Alabama towards Savannah 
instead of down the river to Mobile as it had been going. 
3. Cedar Point Railroad Mobile was situated at the 
head of a large bay, but the great river system behind it 
deposited masses of mud. which on meeting the salt water 
fell to the bottom and formed bars which prevented, large 
vessels from coming up to the town. The old channel 
was around by Blakely and Spanish River to the Mobile, 
and this was one of the reasons for building the town of 
Blakely. The citizens of Mobile sought to have the 
United States government cut through the Choctaw^ Point 
Bar at the mouth of the river and through Dog River Bar 




•®0^^^ ^- ;,,. _ 






^JlUHtlMWI 1 I 'l l ilii f ngJl li li i ri ii ^iB tlii JI ■ Jim I, ■■" 



RAILROAD MONEY 

a little below, so as to save this roundabout course, and in 
the late twenties Congress acted favorably. A small 
appropriation of twenty-five thousand dollars was used 
to cut a channel through the upper bar, but nothing was 
done until 1839 with the lower bar. The citizens of Mobile, 
therefore, undertook to help themselves and use the new 
invention of railroads to connect the city with deeper 
water of the lower bay. A company was organized and 
the Cedar Point Railroad was begun in 1836. The depot 
was on the corner of Church and Franklin Streets and the 



248 Under Five Flags 

road ran almost parallel with the Bay along what is still 
called the Cedar Point Road to Dog River. The cross 
ties were made of light wood and many of them still remain 
in perfect condition. The railway was graded for much 
of the distance on the other side of Dog River, but the panic 
ot 1837 came before a bridge was built, and after a few years 
the road ceased to run. 

4. A Railroad to the Ohio. Meantime the United 
States had at last spent fifty thousand dollars dredging 
a channel over the Dog River Bar, so that vessels drawing 
fifteen feet could come up to the wharves. This was a 
great improvement, but the prospect of having Charleston 
get all the business from the growing Western States was 
disturbing. The early forties were a time of great depres- 
sion. The population of Mobile was twelve thousand and 
some people still came, but, while business was gradually 
recovering from the panic, it was felt that conditions had 
changed. Steamboats were active, but the river traffic 
alone was not reliable. Mobile could no longer claim the 
Alabama-Tombigbee Basin when Georgia was invading 
it with a railroad. At this time M. J. D. Baldwyn con- 
ceived the idea of building a railroad from the city to 
the mouth of the Ohio River and thus tap two great 
valleys at once, — the Ohio and the Mississippi. Men 
thought him visionary as he stood at street corners with his 
map and statistics, trying to interest the people; but finally 
he did interest Sidney Smith, D. W. Goodman and others, 
and a public meeting was held January 11 in the year 1847. 
The project was discussed and finally adopted, and the 
business men of a city of less than twenty thousand 
undertook to build a railroad five hundred miles long. 
When the books were opened next year over six hundred 
thousand dollars was subscribed. As planned, it was the 
longest railroad at that time in the world. 



The Mobile & Ohio Railroad 249 

5. Interesting the Country. A charter was obtained 
February 3, 1848, from the State of Alabama, and others 
from Mississippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky, through which 
the road was to be run, having almost the same provisions. 
Right was given to raise money by public donation and 
taxation, and George S. Gaines and a Mississippi man 
were sent as subscription agents and Lewis Troost and John 
H. Childe as surveyors over the proposec line of the road. 
Much of the territory was still public land, and an effort 
was made to have the Uniter," States make a gift of lands 
vsomewhat as they had been doing for the builaing of canals 
in the North West. Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had 
been trying to get this done for a proposed Illinois Central 
Railroac, but could not persuade the conservative congress- 
men from the South to help the bill through Congress. 
Now he visited Mobile, however, and agreed to include 
the Mobile & Ohio Railroad in the flan, and thus secure 
a railroad from the little town of Chicago to the Gulf of 
Mexico. The Alabama congressmen then agreed to help, 
anc Congress finally passed the famous act of 1851. which 
gave alternate sections of public lands for the proposed 
railroad which was to connect the West with the South. 

6. Stages of Building. From this time construction 
of the road went on stea ^ily. There were some interrup- 
tions, as when new men»were put in charge of the enterprise 
in 1856, and the country came more in control. Milton 
Brown of Tennessee became president ana Colonel L. j. 
Fleming of North Carolina engineer, both to be long 
identified with the Mobile & Ohio. The difficulty with 
all Southern railroads was that to reach the sea they had 
to pass through a hundred miles of pine barren, which 
could afford little traffic except in lumber, but the Mobile 
& Ohio was surveyed up the Chickasabogue and along 
other valleys so a>^ to hiive an easy rrade, and so it was 



250 Under Five Flags 

able to pay expenses even through the Pine Belt. It reached 
Citronelle in 1852, and accommodation trains were run 
regularly, so that this really became a suburb of Mobile. 
In 1854 the terminus was Shubuta on the edge of theCotton 
Belt of Mississippi, and thenceforward it began to bring 
paying quantities of that staple to Mobile for shipment. 
It is true there were no towns for it to reach, for the route 
lay through that virgin territory recently ceded by the 
Choctaws and Chickasaws; but as the road advanced 
villages sprang up, and in a short time the Mobile & Ohio 
became the pioneer trunk line to the Gulf, with many places 
on it which have become important points. The road bed 
was prepared from funds raised by local subscription, 
but the rails had to be brought across the ocean from 
England, and were paid for by a first mortgage, secured 
by the land grants. The policy of Tennessee was to secure 
the building of the road in that state as almost a separate 
enterprise, and to this end the state granted ten thousand 
dollars for each mile finished. This led to building the 
road from the north end also, for which purpose rails were 
taken up the Mississippi River, and there follo'\ved,a new 
invasion of the old Chickasaw country, more peaceable 
but with greater results than that of Bienville over a hun- 
dred years before. The road, therefore, was built from 
both directions at once. Althongh the mineral region 
of Alabama was not yet developed except partially as to 
coal, the company found it profitable to erect its own 
machine shops at the village of Whistler in 1855, and it 
proved a most paying investment. The road reached 
Macon in 1856, West Point the next year, and built branches 
over to the Tombigbee at Aberdeen and Columbus. It 
now brought annually to Mobile almost ninety thousand 
bales of cotton. The Mobile & Ohio next invaded the 
Pontotoc country, where De Soto had wintered and where 



The Mobile & Ohio Railroad 251 

Bienville had been defeated, and agriculture dev^eloped 
so much that the road in 1858 carried over one hundred 
and fifty thousand bales of cotton to Mobile. When the 
railroad reached Corinth, it found a link of the old project 
ot the Memphis & Charleston Railroad, planned to run 
east by way of the Tuscumbia Railroad to the new town of 
Chattanooga. Meantime the engineers had been at the 
north end and by 1858 the road reached Jackson from that 
direction about the time that a rival railroad did from 
New Orleans. The gap between the two building parties 
was soon filled, and just as the Civil War opened the 
Mobile & Ohio was finished from Columbus, Kentucky, 
just below the Ohio River, to Mobile on the Gulf of Mexico. 
7. Results. The result was an increase in business 
of every kind. There had to be more warehouses and 
compresses to handle the cotton and more shipping was 
necessary to carry it abroad, and this meant more employ- 
ment for everyone. The buildings of the day reflect the 
general prosperity. The Battle House was built in 1852 
and the Custom House about the same time, and these, the 
first great buildings near the river, had to be constructed 
upon piling. The dreams of Iberville seemed realized, 
The West had become tributary to the Gulf City. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

THE SCHOOLS. 

1. Private Schools, From early Jewish days schools 
have been connected with the church, and we have seen 
this duty performed during French and Spanish times, and 
by the Catholics it was continued under the Americans. 
The Protestant denominations also had their schools, 
but there gradually grew up in New England the theory 
that where, as in America, the Church and State were 
entirely disconnected, education was the duty of the State 
rather than of the Church. Some of the incoming Ameri- 
cans came from New England, but more were from the 
South, and the idea of state education was slow in taking 
hold. Education as a whole was left to the enterprise of 
individuals. Many of the wealthy people on plantations 
and in town had private tutors, but there grew up also a 
system of private schools, which supplied much of the edu- 
cation of the youth. Some became famous, such as those 
of Dr. Waddell in South Carolina and Henry Tutwiler at 
Green Springs, Alabama, and some denominational col- 
leges, such as that of the Methodists at La Grange near 
Florence, did much good in their districts. At Mobile 
a famous school was built by Norman Pinney in the thirties 
far out on Government Street. X)r. Pinney had been the 
rector of Christ Church, but left his congregation because 
of theological differences, and devoted himself to educa- 
tion. His school was called the Collegiate Institute but 
was more generally known as the Blue College. He taught 
with great success, and he became even better known 
perhaps as the writer of school-books, which were used 
all over the United States. This college was for boys, and 
for girls Mrs. Susan V. R. S. Hale did a work almost as 



The Schools 



253 



well known. She was a sister-in-law of Alexander Hamil- 
ton, and a woman of great culture. Her school in later 
years was in a brick building on the east side of Hamilton 
Street north of Church. In 1843 Amos Towle came out 
from New Hampshire, and, after being associated with Dr. 




BARTON ACADEMY 



Pinney, succeeded him at the Blue College. To such people 

as these many Mobilians were indebted for their education. 

£. The Barton Academy. It was probably the New 

Englanders who brought to Mobile the ideal of public 



254 Under Five Flags 

schools. One of the most active men in the early city was 
Willoughby Barton, and while he was a representative 
from Mobile in the legislature he drew and had passed on 
January 10, 1826, an act which created a Board ot School 
Commissioners for Mobile County. They were given 
power to establish schools and carry out plans for education, 
and among the commissioners were Dinsmore and Hitch- 
cock. The principal revenue was from the grant of a 
quarter ot the ordinary county tax, all the fine and for- 
feiture funds and some licenses. The square upon which 
the Academy stands was acquired in 1830 for twenty-seven 
hundred and fifty dollars, and much of the money needed 
for the building was raised by the endeavors of Henry 
Hitchcock; but, in compliment to the efforts of Barton, 
it was named for him. The building was not completed 
until the act of 1836 enabled the commissioners to raise 
additional funds by means of a lottery, and the schools 
were now extended to the county also. The first com- 
missioners were elected by the people, but afterwards 
they were given the power of choosing their own successors. 
The Academy was not public in the present sense of the 
word, for there were practically no schools organized by 
the commissioners. The private and denominational 
schools of the city were held in the building, and appro- 
priations were made by the commissioners for them. 
An act of the legislature in 1846 authorized tax payers to 
apply their taxes to the free Methodist school. Parts ot 
the building were rented for society and lodging rooms, and 
never for more than a thousand dollars a year, which was 
about one-fifth the total revenue of the Board. In 1851 
the Methodist and Catholic schools were each allowed 
twelve hundred dollars, Bethel schools a little more. Trinity 
five hundred dollars, and schools in the county thirteen 
hundred and fifty dollars. About this time a new plan 



The Schools 255 

was formed by the School Commissioners, and they asked 
for authority to sell Barton Academy so that the interest 
on the proceeds would increase the fund to be distributed 
among the schools. Accordingly, an act of February 9, 
1852, authorized the sale provided the people voted in 
favor thereof, and the question of sale was much discussed. 
Finally a public meeting was held which passed resolutions 
against the sale, and at the election the majority for "no 
sale" was ten to one. A different board was elected and 
they organized the school system on a new basis. 

3. Mobile Schools. When the session was opened in 
November, 1852, there were tour hundred pupils, divided 
among primary, grammar and high schools, and within a 
few months the number was more than doubled. The 
schools owed much to Willis G. Clark, who visited other 
states to study methods. In 1854 the work of the com- 
missioners was approved by the people, city and county 
divided into school districts, and the first superintendent 
appointed. The scfiolars had now increased to over a 
thousand. The school laws were enlarged and improved 
by the legislature and the commissioners forbidden to apply 
any of their funds to sectarian schools. Two years later 
another important act was passed, containing only two 
sections. The first directed the Judge of Probate to give 
to the School Board the proceeds of liquor licenses in 
A-Tobile County, and the second authorized the commissioners 
to levy an annual tax not exceeding one-twentieth of one 
per cent upon the real and personal property in the county 
for the benefit of the public schools. Gustavus Horton 
was president of the Board at this time and said that 
securing the liquor licenses was an act of poetic justice; 
since the barrooms brought misery to lamilies, it was 
right that they should in turn contribute to the support 
of the children. These two provisions remained until 



256 Under Five Flags 

lately. Just before the Civil War there were six city and 
twenty-five county schools, and among the text books 
used were Cornell's geography, Colburn's arithmetic, 
Quackenbcs' readers, Harkness & Arnold's Latin books 
and Pinney's French courses. 

4. The Alabama Public Schools. The Mobile system 
led to the organization of public schools for the state. 
As the interests of the interior grew and Tuscaloosa, 
Montgomery and Huntsville grew, there cam.e a need for 
a state system. The United States had at a very early 
date granted, the sixteenth section of every township of 
the public lands for the use of the schools, but not much 
had. been realized from this source. Many of the counties 
exercised the right they had of selling the lands, and, 
although the money was generally applied to school pur- 
poses, the land sold for sm.all sums, and to was seen that 
little good could be done without state assistance. The 
lead in this school movement naturally came from Mobile, 
and A. B. Meek, while representing Mobile in the legisla- 
ture, drew and secured the passage in 1854 of a law estab- 
lishing a public school system for the state. This in so 
many words recognized, the good work done by the Mobile 
schools and exempted them from control of the state 
authorities, — a policy w h i c h has ever been pre- 
served. 

0. The University of Alabama. The capstone of the 
public schools is a state university. The early thirties 
were not only a period of prosperity throughout the South, 
but of awakening to the need of higher education. The 
University of Virginia was founded by Jefferson in 1825 
and. this gave a great impulse towards the building of 
state colleges. The United States had from an early date 
made donations of public lands to be applied to such 
institutions, and this was the case at the admission of 



The ScJiools 



257 



Alabama. A university was provided for by a state act 
of 1820, but it was not built for several years, when it 
was placed in the suburbs of Tuscaloosa, not far from 
the state capital. It was opened, to the public in the year 
1831, and. gradually grew in favor, and had many 
famous presidents and professors. 

G. Spring Hill College. There were also colleges at 
Mobile. The Catholics have always been a strong element 
in the population and 
many men of means and. 
ability have belonged to 
that faith. In 1830 they 
built at Spring Hill, fi\i" 
miles from Mobile, the 
celebrated College of Si. 
Joseph, chartered, by the 
State in 1836, and declared 
a university by the Pope 
six years later. In 1847 
it came under the control 
of the Jesuits, who have 
always been interested in 
education, and, equipped 
with good professors, it 
gradually grew to be one 
of the best colleges in the 
South. Theattendance was 
principally from Louisiana, 
Mexico, and. the West Indies, where its graduates have 
exercised great influence. 

7. Alabama Medical College. The epidemics had one 
good effect in developing fine physicians, and in the fifties 
these conceived the idea of building a medical school at 
Mobile. J. C. Nott was one of the leaders in this enterprise 




J. C. NOTT 



258 Under Five Flags 

and was seconded by George A. Ketchum and others, 
with the result that in 1853 the Medical College was found- 
ed. A whole square was bought and a handsome building 
erected by money of which the state gave fifty thousand 
dollars and Mobile as much more. Dr. Nott went to 
Europe and purchased its fine collections and museum, 
and in 1859 the college entered on its long career of useful- 
ness. The institution ultimately became a part of the State 
University. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

LITERATURE AND THE DRAMA. 

1. Early Writers. The Creoles had not dex'eloped a 
native h'terature, and the Americans brought their books 
with them from the older states. The pioneers were too 
busy making a living to have the leisure which is necessary 
fcr writing books. Newspapers were the first form of 
writing in the South. They gave what news there was, and 
discussed politics, but literature as such was not much 
advanced by them. The earliest newspaper in this part 
of the country was the Mobile Centinel, published at Fort 
Stoddert by Thomas Eastin before the occupation of 
Mobile. The first newspaper afterwards was the Ga- 
zette, founded 1815, but the paper which outlasted all others 
was the Register, founded in 1821. Of books at that time 
there would be little to say. The first were law books 
and these were of Mississippi Territory and did not come 
from Mobile. The earliest from our river basin were 
the "Alabama Justice of the Peace," compiled by Henry 
Hitchcock when attorney-general and published at Cahaba 
in 1822, and the \'aluab!e "Laws of Alabama" published 
the next year by Harry Toulmin, at the same place. 

2. Meek and Smith. The most versatile oi Alabama 
authors was William R. Smith, but he touches Mobile 
life only tor a moment. During the Texan War of Inde- 
pendence he shared the general sympathy with the Texans 
ancl raised a company at Tuscaloosa. They got no further 
than Mobile, and there Smith remained. He had edited 
the Southron at Tuscaloosa, and now began the Bachelor's 
Button at Mobile. 

Meek also already had a career before coming to Mobile 
in the forties. He was a native of South Carolina, but 



260 



Under Five Flaos 



received his early training at Tuscaloosa. Almost all 
literature begins with poetry, for imagination seems to 
run freer in the country than in the city, and it was Meek's 
theory that verse is as much the product of a land as its 
flowers. He naturally began his literary career, therefore, 
by reading on the Fourth of July, 1838, a poem called 

"Day of Freedom," con- 
taining passages of great 
beauty. The Indian his- 
tory of the Tombigbee 
Valley attracted him and in 
1839 he published in the 
Southron several sketches, 
afterwards compiled at 
Mobile as "Romantic Pas- 
sages of Southwestern His- 
tory." The magazine was 
soon combined with the 
Batchelor's Button. 

One of Meek's best 
known books is "The Red 
Eagle," the story ot the 
Indian Weathertord(1855), 
and "Songs and Poems of 
the South" (1857) em- 
brace many of his shorter 
poems. 
3. Susan V. R. S. Hale. Mrs. Hale was a much beloved 
teacher of Knickerbocker ancestry and lived for a long 
time in Mobile. She published at New York in 1845 
what is perhaps the earliest book written in Mobile, 
entitled "Saturday Evenings." It is composed of moral 
essays of the kind which used to be so common, but now 
little used. 




A. B. MEEK 



Literature and the Drama 



261 



,!i. Josiah C. Nott. Dr. Nott was not only a famous 
physician, but a writer of ability, and took especial interest 
in the discussion of geology and race, which in the middle 
of the century followed the publication of Hugh Miller's 
works in England. In connection with George R. Gliddon 
he wrote a book called "Types of Mankind," published by 
Gliddon in 1854, which had 
a large sale and was re- 
garded as of great scienti- 
fic value. His controversy 
at an earlier day with the 
Presbyterian minister at 
Mobile led in 1852 to the 
publication by Dr. Hamil- 
ton of a work called "The 
Friend of Moses," defend- 
ing the old-time view of 
the Scriptures from the at- 
tacks of the modern scien- 
tists. This work was re- 
published in Edinburgh. 

5. Madame Le Vert. 
George Walton was mayor 
of Mobile in the fifties, and 
his daughter, Octavia, was 
one of the celebrities of the 
lime. She and her hus- 
band. Dr. LeVert, lived at the southwest corner ot St. 
Emanuel and Government Streets and there she main- 
tained what amounted to a salon. No visit to the South 
was complete without seeing Madanic LeVert and hearing 
her brilliant conversation, and Washington Irving said 
a century produced only one such woman. Her home 
was the scene of manv social and literary gatherings. She 




MADAME LE VERT 



262 



Under Five Fla^s 



went to Europe with her husband at the time it was rare 
for an American woman to travel, and was admitted to 
courts and places not usually seen. Her letters back to her 
mother were very interesting and on her return she pub- 
lished, them in 1857 as "Souvenirs of Travel." The book 
attracted great attention and made her the leading literary 
character ct Mobile. 

6. Augusta Evans. While Madame LeVert was holding 
her court in town, there was growing up on the Spring Hill 

Avenue out in the country 
another woman destined to 
be famous. Mr. Evans 
was in business in Mobile, 
and at his comfortable 
hom.e, since known as the 
Damrell place, his daugh- 
ter Augusta was writing 
from time to tim^e, for it 
was impossible for her not 
to write, stories that at- 
tracted the attention of 
friends. "Inez, a Tale of 
the Alamo," was written 
early and published in 1857 
and awakened a good deal 
of interest because ol that 
tragedy, so fresh in the 
minds of everyone. In 
1859 came "Beulah," and 
it was clear that a genius had appeared. The style was 
unusual, and the action at times stiff, but the 
novel was one of great power and widely read throughout 
the United States. It gave promise of even better yet to 
come, and withal the authoress was one of the most beautitul 




AUGUSTA EVANS WILSON 



Literature and the Drama 263 

natures that ever lived, and remained throughout her long 
Ufe completely unspoiled by the fame which came to her. 
She was ever ready with her hand and pen to help any good 
cause, and no literary person has ever liv'ed in Mobile who 
has had the same hold on the love of its people. 

7. Madame Chaudron. The Vine and Olive Company 
ceased to be aught but a memory, and many of these French 
people came to Mobile to live. One was Simon Chaudron, 
a writer ot ability and fame, who, however, wrote only in 
French. His daughter-in-law, Adelaide De Vendel, of 
the same old French stock, was also writing in the fifties, 
but was to become better known a decade later. She 
wrote a series of readers which were much used. 

8. Lawyers and Ministers. Both lawyers and ministers 
at the South have found it easy to unite literature with 
their professions, for these professions are literary in their 
nature. Some law books have been mentioned, and both 
William R. Smith and A. B. Meek were lawyers, and 
Meek was probate judge at Mobile in 1854. A. J. 
Requier was district attorney at Mobile and just before 
the War he published a volume of poems of merit. The 
one to the memory of his wife, beginning "Mary, Mary, 
Mary, dear," is well known. 

Nor were ministers behind the lawyers in this matter. 
Pinney's works were principally for schools, but he was a 
man of rare culture and his books often show great literary 
taste. Besides the controversal books already mentioned, 
the two books of J. H. Ingraham are famous, — his "Prince 
of the House of David," and "Pillar of Fire." They were 
written before he came to Mobile, but he brought their 
atmosphere with him. 

The printing of sermons was more general in those days 
than now. Many such pamphlets have been preserved and 
the sermons of Dr. P. P. Neely were gathered in book form. 



264 Under Five Flags 

9. Other Writers. There were others, mainly poets, 
who pubUshed works just prior to the Civil War. Among 
these books were "Wild Shrubs of Alabama" by Julia M. 
Harriss and "Poems" by Harry L. Flash. Of books 
about Mobile there were many, and among them should be 
remembered Sir Charles Lyell's "Second Visit to the United 
States" in the forties and P. H. Gosse's "Letters from Ala- 
bama" a decade later. 

10. S. H. Goetzel. Mobile in the fifties had become one 
ot the literary centres of the Union, and. an Austrain, who 
had made the place his home in 1853, bid fair to make it a 
publishing centre as well. He was a bookseller on lower 
Dauphin Street, and through his office on Fulton Street, 
New York, published for Meek, Madame Le Vert and Miss 
Evans the books which made them famous. In 1860 he 
published for William Walker that celebrated adventurer's 
"War in Nicaragua." Goetzel was a man of great energy 
and was highly regarded. 

11. The Theatre. Mobile had no need to invent drama 
any more than literature, and one ot her earliest citizens, 
Noah Ludlow, in 1823 erected the first theatre at the 
northwest corner of Royal and the street which was named 
Theatre from his building. This did not last long, but there 
was almost always a theatre in the city, and much of inter- 
est about all of them is told by Ludlow in his book "Drama- 
tic Life." He managed the Mobile, New Orleans and St. 
Louis theatre circuit for many years. One of the local 
theatres was on the west side of St. Emanuel, where the 
Peerless Laundry now stands, somewhat famous from a 
shooting which occurred during a play; and perhaps the 
best known of all was one on Royal near St. Michael, 
just beyond the present Express office. After the burning 
of the Mansion House that vacant lot was used as a hippo- 
drome and in the fifties rebuilt as a theatre. There 



Literature and the Drama 



265 



Joseph Jefferson ran about the stage when his father was 
an actor, and there many famous plays were acted. The 
elder Jefferson lived on the west side of Conception Street 
near St. Michael, and is buried in Magnolia; and Joseph 
Jefferson's childhood was spent in Moljile. Booth, For- 
rest, Dean and others appeared here, and one of the best 
known was Cora Mowatt, 
a loxely character in her- 
self who wrote a charming 
autobiography'. At this 
theatre it was that Mac- 
ready made his famous 
objection to haxing it noted 
in the theatre advertise- 
ments that one Henry Clay 
would be present at his 
performances. By special 
in\itation the Cowbellians 
attended the theatre in 
costume on New Year's 
Eve, 1844. 

//. With the Editors. 
The Gazette was the first 
paper published at Mobile 
after the American occu- 
pation and in 1823 it was 
combined with the Reg- 
ister. This paper has had many notable editors and has had 
notable rivals also. 

Thaddeus Sanford was one of the earlier American set- 
tlers and v\'as for a long time editor of the Register. He was 
a Jacksonian Democrat and made the paper one of the 
leading journals of the South. In the fifties the editor 
was John Fors\'th, of a prominent Georgia famih-, and a 




C. C. LANGDON 



266 



Under Five Flags 



Princeton graduate. Forsyth was possibly the most 
incisive writer who has Hved in Mobile, and in his hands 
the Mobile Register was a power. He was minister to 
Mexico for two years, but returned to the Register, and 
edited it until after the War. 

The city was large and flourishing enough for two 
papers. The Advertiser began in the twenties, and held its 

own until absorbed by the 
Register during the Civil 
War. The principal editor 
was Charles C. Langdon, a 
Whig, who bought the 
paper in 1838 and during 
his fifteen years ownership 
wielded great influence, not 
only in Mobile, but 
throughout the South. 

Willis Cx. Clark edited 
when Langdon was absent, 
and in the fifties founded 
the "Southern Magazine." 
All of these li\'ed at 
a time when editorials were 
the special feature of a 
paper. News was import- 
ant, but there was less news 
than now, and Sanford, 
Forsyth and Langdon had 
an influence w^hich might now be impossible. 

12. Theodore O'Hara. Just prior to the War Theodore 
O'Hara, a different kind of writer, was in Mobile. He 
was a Kentuckian and it was after service in the Mexico 
War that he wrote in his native state the celebrated "Biv- 
ouac of the Dead," now set up in many cemeteries. He 




THEODORE O'HARA 



Literature and the Drama 267 

followed Walker in his expedition to Nicaragua and Lopez 
to Cuba, and was afterwards at Mobile as editor of the 
Register. In the Civil War he was for a time in the 
forts at the mouth of. the Bay. He died shortly after 
the war on the Chattahoochee, and Kentucky had his 
remains moved to the state cemetery at Frankfort. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 



THE GOLDEN FIFTIES. 



1. Storm and Fever. Although the Mobile &: Ohio was 
gradually opening a bright future, Mobile experienced the 
truth of the old adage that misfortunes do not come single. 

In 1852 a southeastern 
\vind blew the water of the 
Bay back into the city 
until all the ground which 
had been made east of 
Royal Street was for the 
time being under water 
again. This continued for 
se\-eral days and the dam- 
age done to stocks of goods 
as well as to the buildings 
was immense. A steam- 
boat came up St. Francis 
Street almost to Royal; 
but, although the storm 
vvas severe, it had no last- 
ing efTect. People set to 
vvork at once to repair the 
damage and soon the great 
storm of 1852 was only a 
memory. Not so, how- 
ever, with the epidemic of yellow fever which came next 
year, and called forth all the energy and heroism which was 
centering in the city. There were well known doctors, 
such as Nott, LeVert, Ross and Mordecai, besides younger 
men like George A. Ketchum and Claude Mastin, and 
their skill was taxed to the utmost. Of the thousands 




GEORGE A. KETCHUM 



The Golden Fifties 269 

of cases about one died out of every three. The epidemic 
was the greatest that had ever visited. Mobile, and carried 
off many useful citizens. The loss of men is a damage 
which can never be repaired. 

2. The River Traffic. The river trade made up the life 
of the city and of the state. The few railways connected 
different river systems, or ran out into the country a few 
miles from a river town, and what they brought in was 
shipped, by steamboat to Mobile. From about 1850 the 
business on the rivers was greatly increased, and the boats 
themselves became of a difTerent type. They were from 
two hundred to three hundred feet long, some side- wheeled, 
some stern-wheeled, carrying from one to three thousand 
bales of cotton and many passengers. The Emperor, 
the Cahaba, the Black Warrior, the Messenger, the Alice 
Vivian, and the Eliza Battle were famous, but possibly 
the most beautiful boat ever on the river was the Magnolia. 
These steamers brought corn and. cotton, and, as they were 
the sole means of travel except by stage coach, were fitted 
with every luxury for the comfort of passengers. They 
cost from fifty to seventy-five thousand dollars each, 
but were often only short-lived. The Antoinette Douglas 
blew up at Tait's Shoals with many passengers on her 
second trip in the forties. The burning of the Eliza 
Battle, where even those who escaped by swimming to 
trees were frozen to death, was one of the great horrors 
of southwestern history. A number of boats were burned 
and others sunk, but some remained on the river for many 
years. These steamers ran upon both rivers, but in late 
summer the Bigbee was generally lower and the same 
steamers would then be transferred to the Alabama River. 
The general destination was Columbus or Aberdeen 
470 miles up the Bigbee, Tuscaloosa 413 miles up the 
Warrior and Montgomery 403 miles up the Alabama, 



270 Under Five Flags 

although the trip was often interrupted in summer time 
by low water, as in 1855. Ahnost every bhiff was a landing 
with a warehouse, from which cotton would be slid down 
an incline to the boat, where deck hands stowed it away. 
There were in course of time some four hundred landings 
on the Alabama River and over two hundred on the Tom- 
bigbee, and the business all centered at Mobile. By 1860 
over eight hundred thousand bales of cotton were brought 
down for shipment, and of this at least two-thirds came 
by river. 

3. Foreign Trade. There were no regular lines of ships 
to foreign ports, but the ship-brokers had no difficulty 
getting all the British and French vessels that were needed 
in the cotton season. On account of the size of the bale, 
it became usual to compress it to one-half the original 
size, or even less, and by the fifties there had been built 
in Mobile half a dozen well known presses, which put the 
cotton in shape for foreign shipment. South of Church 
Street were Mathews and Walker's presses, with which 
were connected live warehouses, but Wm. Jones, Jr., had 
now succeeded in his fight to keep most of the business in 
the upper part of town near the steamboat landings. 
The Alabama and Union Presses were at the corner of St. 
Michael and Water Streets, having seven or eight ware- 
houses attached, while in the Orange Grove Tract were 
Factor's Press with a dozen warehouses, and Planter's 
and Shipper's Presses with as many more. The receipt 
and shipment of freight were not carried over a few wharves 
as in the thirties, but over dozens, extending from One 
Mile Creek on the north to the toot of Government Street. 
Few of these were owned by the city, for most had been 
built by private owners and were in the combine controlled 
by D. W. Goodman and C. P. Gage. Deep draft vessels 
could not come up to the city and a large business was done 



The Golden Fifties 271 

by Cox, Brainerd & Co. in lightering cotton down to what 
was called the Lower Fleet. There were few steamships, 
but the Royal Mail Line from England to the West Indies 
called regularly at the mouth of the Mobile Bay. In the 
early fifties it took on board Alabama coal, which was well 
liked, and people could look forward to the time when 
other steamships would come. Indeed, late in the fifties 
a steamship line was started from Mobile to New York, 
and the day when the first vessel, the Black Warrior, 
arrived was obserx'ed as a general holiday. 

4. Railroads and Stages. Alabama had not embarked 
on railroad building as had. Carolina and Georgia. Many 
railroads were planned, but for a long time the Mobile 
& Ohio was the only long one built in the South West. 
One reason for this was that the steamiboats were numerous 
and attractive, and another was that the money to build a 
railroad was more than the towns which it connected were 
able to supply. A great craze had arisen in the forties 
for plank roads, with toll-gates, and much of the energy 
which other states put into railroads was in Alabama put 
into plank roads. What afterwards came to be known 
as the Bay Shell Road was under its charter of 1850 a 
plank road and this provision was not changed for many 
years. A stage ran from Montgomery to Blakely, connect- 
ing with the steamer to Mobile, and a stage ran also from 
Blakely to Pensacola. By Montgomery went what was 
called the Great Eastern Mail. Bladon and Cullum 
Springs were now in great vogue. They could be reached 
by steamboat up the Tombigbee River, but the shorter 
trip was by the Mobile & Ohio to State Line and thence 
by a "splendid four horse coach" over to the springs. 
By this route passengers could leave Mobile at 9 o'clock 
in the morning and arrive at the Springs at 7 in the after- 
noon. 



272 



Under Five Flails 



x^s ether parts of the country built raih'oads Alabama 
could not escape the wish for quick transit also, the more 
especially as the steamers could not afford to sacrifice 
freight for speed. During the legislative session in the 
winter of 1851-52 there were chartered the Mobile and. New 
Orleans Railroad and the Mobile and Montgomery Rail- 
road. Neither was built at the time, but they pointed 




DAUPHIN STREET 



forward to the future, and the need of rapid transit for 
cotton led to the actual building of a road from Mont- 
gomery to Pensacola under the name cf Alabama and 
Florida Railroad. This Wc*s a distinct threatto Mobile's 
commerce, and was met in time bv chartering the Mobile 



The Golden Fifties 



273 



and Great Northern Railroad, which was built at the same 
period as the Pensacola road, and tapped it at Pollard 
about the time that the Civil War broke out. 

5. Buildings. The progress of Mobile, due to foreign 
and domestic trade, was shown by the important buildings 
which were erected during the fifties. Among them were 
the Battle House and Custom House opposite, which 
had to be built on pilings driven deep into the soft soil. 
The Custom House was made of granite brought from New 




BATTLE HOUSE 



England by boat and cost three hundred and sixty thousand 
dollars. One of the most significant structures for the 
growth of Mobile was the Municipal Building, erected by 
city bonds in 1852, and taking the place of the old markets 
which the Supreme C^ourt had ordered removed, from 
the middle of Government Street. The city prison still 
remained at the corner of St. Emanuel and Conti, where 
from the high square tower built in the forties city officers 
called out the hours of the day and night, and summoned 



274 Under Five Flags 

the firemen by strokes of the great bell, indicating one of 
the four wards. The temperance movement of the day 
led to the organization of the Sons of Temperance and 
similar societies, and the building by a separate corporation 
of Temperance Hall, while the strength of the Odd Fellows 
was shown by the erection of their handsome hall on Royal 
Street. While these were the largest, many other public 
and private edifices were built and the aspect of Mobile 
gradually changed. A verandah across the sidewalk 
was usual in front of the stores on Dauphin, which 
had superseded Conti as the principal shopping street, 
and it was also used in a beautiful manner with private 
residences. From this time date the iron posts and rail- 
ings, often copying vines or ornamental work, which still 
support many galleries. This became a destinctive feature 
of Mobile architecture, particularly on Government and 
Conception Streets. 

6. Stores. Among the stores on Dauphin Street one 
could find everything that could be wished for in the retail 
business. Low down S. H. Goetzel and Company kept a 
large stationery and book establishment, and nearby were 
Strickland's book and printery and John Douglas & Co. 
dry goods store. Around, the corner was Randall's book 
store, and higher up on Dauphin was Holmes' shoe store, 
Leslie's jewelry establishment. Gets' and Festorazzi's 
candy stores, Elsworth's crockery, and Coster, Soto, 
Meslier, Mohr and Cawthon had well known drug stores. 
The old English custom of signs was still maintained, 
especially on Dauphin Street. The drug stores often had 
a golden mortar in front, and P. H. Pepper's golden sheep, 
Herpin's golden bee^hive, and Phelan and Delamere's 
golden cotton bale pointed out popular dry goods stores. 
Arnold sold shoes. Snow and Bromberg handled music 
and toys, Barnes made the daguerreotypes of that day, and 



The Golden Fifties 



275 



the best known restaurant outside the hotels was the 
Alhambra. Noah Higgins was the favorite undertaker, 
and it is said that he always wept with the family at a 
funeral. Mazange, Letondal, Grady, Bidgood, Stirling, 




MUNICIPAL BUILDING 



delbke, Leinkauf, Forchheimer, Peter, Twelves, Part- 
ridge and Werborn were well known names, while the 
cotton buyers, factors and commission merchants were 
legion. 



276 Under Five Flags 

7. The Military. The military were always an import- 
ant feature of Alabama life. General T. W. McCoy 
commanded the fourth division, whose ninth brigade was 
located at Mobile under Brigadier General Thomas J. 
Butler. The first volunteer regiment was made up of the 
City Troop, the German Fusiliers, Mobile Cadets, Wash- 
ington Light Infantry, Independent Rifles, Mobile Rifles, 
LaFayette Guards, Gulf City Guards, Alabama Light 
Dragoons, the Bienville Blues, and the State Artillery, and 
their captains were prominent citizens of Mobile. The head- 
quarters of the military were in the Armory, which took up 
the south wing of the Municipal Building on Royal and 
Church Streets. Drills in the Camp Ground west of town 
and parades in the streets were frequent, accompanied by 
pleasant social features. The military nature of Mobilians 
was illustrated by some of them, like Harry Maury, joining 
in the Lopez expedition to Cuba in 1851, and in Walker's 
filibustering adventure against Nicaragua which sailed 
from Mobile in 1858. 

8. The Police. The police had now attained its present 
form. The origin of the force is in the city watch of Lon- 
don, made famous by Shakespeare. While Mobile was 
a town each of the wards had a commissioner to enforce 
the ordinances, with two constables to assist him by making 
arrests, and when the city was established a watch, com- 
manded by a captain, was organized, on which any and all 
citizens had to serve by turns. In 1825 a police force was 
begun in the modern sense of the word, and by the fifties 
it numbered three dozen men, under an efficient chief, 
Stephen Charpentier. 

9. The Outlook. The mayor of Mobile held a court at 
the city hall and also looked after the administration 
of the government. A famous mayor was C. C. Langdon, 
who went into office in 1849 and remained until he was 



The Golden Fifties 



277 



succeeded by Jones M. Withers in 1856. Both were active 
and efficient officers and did much to forward the public 
interests. A number of lawyers already named had now 
become prominent and to them should be added as flourish- 
ing in the fifties Edmund S. Dargan of North Carolina, who 
had been on the Alabama Supreme Court, Raphael Semmes 
of Maryland, who came in the forties, and Robert H. Smith, 
born in North Carolina but who had already lived in the 
interior of Alabama before com.ing to Mobile in 1853. 
It was at this time John 
A. Campbell was promoted 
to a seat on the Supreme 
Court of the United States. 
The population was little 
short of thirty thousand, 
of whom two-thirds were 
whites, almost evenly 
di\'idcd between the two 
sexes. Mobile had now 
reached a stage where 
beauty played a part in 
her de\'elopment. Bien- 
ville Square had been sur- 
roiuuk'd !)>■ a handsome 
fence, the sidewalks were 
paved throughout the city, 
and many streets were 
shelled, in 1858 the Om- 
nil)us C\)mpany was char- 
tered, which operated a line of busses on Dauphin, and 
street cars were introduced on Spring Hill Road. Sani- 
tary sewerage was as yet unknown, but water, gas, police 
and all the other appliances of a modern city were at 
Mobile. It still remained a shipping port for raw material 




JOHN A. (CAMPBELL 



278 Under Five Flags 

brought down the rivers, such as cotton, sometimes 
lumber and a Httle coal; and if the rivers could be improved 
there would be much more coal and even iron, which was 
known to exist on the Cahaba River. Of manufactures, 
however, there was as little now as in the past. There 
was throughout the South much discussion as to factories, 
and Daniel Pratt established one near Montgomery which 
was very successful. There had been a factory making 
cotton cloth on Dog River, but smoke did not long come 
from its tall brick chimney. The genius of the people 
did not seem to run towards manufacturing, except that 
saw mills and foundries flourished. The principal busi- 
ness was trade with the interior and with Europe, and banks, 
insurance and professions were well developed, for they 
were incidental to commerce. Mobile was essentially a 
port, and her future outlook was unequalled in her history. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 

STATE AND FEDERAL AFFAIRS. 

1. The Building of a State. During colonial times our 
interest has been centered upon the river and bay of Mobile, 
while during the territorial epoch the Tennessee Valley 
and the Black Belt grew so rapidly in population and wealth 
as to call our attention to these districts also. It has 
been the mission of the state not only to make a unit of 
Alabama, but to give it an equal place with the old English 
colonies in the Union of States. Mobile during all this 
time has been the principal city and our outlook has been 
from this point, but we will now sum up public affairs of 
the state at large. 

In order for Alabama to become a unit it was necesasry 
to remove the Indians from the east and west, to supply 
money of some kind for the purposes of business, and to 
connect the Tennessee Riv^er Basin and Alabama-Tombig- 
bee Basin by some form ot internal improvement. These 
marked the principal steps in the growth of the state. The 
need of money was met by establishing banks, particularly 
the Bank oi the State of Alabama, and for two decades 
it served its purpose. Together with private banks it 
did much to develop the country, and for several years 
there were no taxes, as public expenses were paid from the 
profits of the State Bank. When its powers were abused 
it was a Mobile man, John A Campbell,, who in 1842 
began the legislation which led to the winding up of the 
Bank by Commissioner F. S. Lyon, of Demopolis. 

The removal of the Indians was effected by the state 
although the treaties and formal steps had to be taken by 
the Federal Government. Encroachments upon Indian 
lands became general and state laws and state officials 



280 Under Five Flags 

exercised control over the tribes themselves. Only then 
did Federal government take the needed steps resulting 
in removal. Treaties were made at different times in the 
thirties and that decade ran out before all the Indians took 
their departure. 

The question of connecting the different districts of the 
state commercially was of slower solution. Roads were 
built by local authorities, canals planned, and finally rail- 
roads were to solve the problem. The North and South 
Railroad was projected northwardly from Montgomery 
and the Alabama-Tennessee Rivers Railroad was built 
through Selma to the lower coal and. iron regions; but the 
full solution was not reached until after the Civil War. 

2. Governors and Capitals. Banks, Indians and rail- 
roads involved social movements, and these are slow, and, 
while full of meaning, do not come with observation. 
Much less important matters, such as who should become 
governor and where should be the capital, entered much 
more in state politics. Considering the importance of 
Mobile and the tact that for a while it paid almost quarter 
of the state taxes, it is remarkable that no governor has 
ever come from this port. The governors have been chosen 
from the Tennessee Valley or from the Black Belt. The 
Tennessee Valley has always acted as a unit, while outside 
of Mobile South Alabama was not populous, and moreover 
sometimes the planters have had a jealousy of the port 
with which they did business. This showed itselt in the 
legislation of the thirties aimed at the warehouses of Mobile. 
Nevertheless, on the whole the interests of Mobile and the 
Black Belt were identical; so much so that several of 
the governors and state officials elected from the river 
counties have afterwards made their home at Mobile. 
The first of these was John Gayle, a South Carolinian who 
had moved to Clailiorne. While goveronr in the thirties 



State and Federal Affairs 281 

Gayle carried out the state policy as to the Indians and in 
so doing came in conflict with the President of the United 
States, who was no other than Andrew Jackson. The 
mattter was only adjusted by the President sending out 
Francis Scott Key, author of the Star Spangled Banner, 
on a special mission to Alabama. Gayle afterwards moved 
to Mobile. Arthur P. Bagby was likewise a distinguished 
governor for two terms in the late thirties, and his family 
has long resided in Mobile. The same is true of John A. 
Winston, who was governor in the fifties. Of local import- 
ance was the selection of the capital. Cahaba was aban- 
doned for Tuscaloosa in 1826, and with the growth of East 
Alabama after the removal of the Indians a further change 
was determined on. In 1847 Mobile received some votes, 
but Montgomery was selected. The capitol there was 
burned two years later but soon rebuilt. 

3. Federal Politics. The United States admitted Ala- 
bama as a state, but Alabama had earned this honor 
without much help from the Union, for the Creek War 
which made Alabama had been tought by volunteers and 
not by United States regulars. Immigration had been 
aided by the liberal -land laws, but the removal of the 
Indians was forced by the state itself. The first presi- 
dential vote of Alabama was cast by the legislature for 
Monroe in 1820 and four years later for Jackson and 
Calhoun. It was not until 1828 that presidential electors 
were chosen by popular vote, and then the Alabama candi- 
dates, Jackson and Calhoun, actually became president 
and vice-president. The people were opposed to centraliz- 
ing the government, and Alabama's representatives favored 
a low tariff instead of the high tarifif desired by the manu- 
facturers of the East. In 1840 the Whig party attained 
strength in a reaction from the Democracy of Jackson's 
day and from this time onward it had great strength in 



282 



Uiider Five Flags 



Mobile and Montgomery, as well as among the large 
planters. In 1847 Governor Gayle was elected member of 
Congress from the Mobile district as a Whig, but John 
Bragg, after a long career as state circuit judge, ran as a 
Democrat and after an exciting canvass in 1851 defeated 
C. C. Langdon, a Whig, who was almost continuously 
mayor of Mobile for twelve 
years. Philip Phillips, a 
Democrat, originally from 
South Carolina, was in the 
fifties a member of Con- 
gress from Mobile. 

4. Federal Officials. In 
1820, the same year that 
the state supreme court, 
made up of the circuit jus- 
tices, organized at Cahaba, 
the Federal government 
established a Federal dis- 
drict court for Alabama. 
The first judge was Charles 
Tait, and he was succeeded 
in 1826 by William Craw- 
ford, so long connected 
with the land office at St. 
Stephens, and then district 
attorney. His successor 

was John Gayle in 1849, who presided with great satisfac- 
tion to all for over ten years. Upon his death William 
G. Jones became district judge. Alabamians held even 
higher Federal offices. McKinley had gone upon the 
Federal supreme bench from North Alabama at an early 
date, and upon his death in 1853 John A. Campbell of 
Mobile was appointed to succeed him. The year before 




R. H. SMITH 



State and Federal Affairs 283 

this William R. King, who lived near Selma, which he named, 
was elected vice-president of the United States. In the 
national agitation over Texas Alabamians entered heartily 
and furnished soldiers. Few of them were needed, however. 
5. Slavery. We have seen that society rests upon 
political, religious, social and industrial foundations. 
Political and religious matters have occupied much of our 
attention and it is time to take up social conditions. Partly 
social and partly industrial 'is the subject of labor as it 
existed in the Southern States. The class which did 
the manual labor were African slaves, but slavery had lost 
much of the severity it had while the blacks were imported 
savages. The negroes were often spoken of as "colored 
people" and the word "servant" or "boy" was much oftener 
used than "slave." At Mobile in the fifties there were 
about nine thousand negroes, of whom one thousand were 
free and had to be registered annually. The slaves were 
employed as laborers in all branches of business, particu- 
larly in cotton. The house servants were practically 
members of the family, slept on the place in outhouses, and 
many of them were given some education. People often 
hired out their negroes, and not a few widows and families 
were dependent upon the earnings of a faithful man or 
two, whom they seldom saw. These might be barbers, or 
cooks on river steamboats or the line to New Orleans, or 
serve in any other capacity, and would come at regular 
intervals to pay over their earnings and receive themselves 
what was needed for their own support. The negroes were 
kindly treated, not only from self-interest of the masters, 
but from the attachment that naturally exists between 
people in a high and a dependent condition. An almost 
feudal system grew up, particularly in the country. Reli- 
gious instruction was carefully given, and in sickness the 
mistress of the house in town, as of that on the plantation, 



284 Under Five Flags 

gave the negroes the same care which she did to her own 
family, and on the other side the old uncles and aunts 
and mammies loved their "white folks" devotedly. The 
principal defect about slavery was the breaking up of 
negro families by sales. In early days this was not much 
regarded, but it was coming to be recognized that family 
ties should be recognized. Preachers of all denominations 
laid stress upon it, and public opinion prevented the selling 
of one away from the family where it could be avoided. 

6. Police Regulations . Not only did people moving to 
Mobile bring their servants, but there was a regular 
domestic slave trade in the South. Many negroes were 
brought by speculators from Virginia, where the climate 
was not favorable to their use, and sold in the more southern 
states. The market in Mobile was on the west side of 
Royal between St. Louis and St. Anthony, where a three- 
story brick building with barred windows (on the site now 
occupied by the Electric Lighting plant) was the barracks 
in which the slaves were kept. The business was looked 
upon as one that was necessary, but confined to a certain 
district, and people who carried it on did not rank high 
socially. All negroes were kept under supervision. Free 
blacks on board ship were not allowed to land; slaves were 
not permitted to own property, except indirectly, and their 
assemblages were forbidden. At night they had to be in- 
doors by nine o'clock, and in the day time they must show 
a pass from their master. 

7. The Last Slaver. Few of the negroes about Mobile 
had come from Africa. They were descendants of slaves 
who had been in x^merica for generations. The slave trade 
had been prohibited by the law of the United States ever 
since 1810 and there were few violations of the statute. 
The planters generally did not desire savages fresh from 
Africa, but one cargo was brought over in the late fifties. 



State and Federal Affairs 285 

which created quite a sensation at the time. The schooner 
Clotilda sailed from Loanda in Africa with several hundred 
negroes, prisoners captured by the warriors of one tribe 
in a war with another tribe, and sold to American specu- 
lators. The Clotilda safely reached Mississippi Sound 
and was taken in charge by Tim Meaher and run up the 
Bay and river by night without being observed. The 
negroes were hidden in the marshes of upper Baldwin 
county, and the Clotilda was then taken up Bayou Conner 
and burned. The Federal authorities took proceedings 
against Meaher in the United States Court and the case 
was tried, with able lawyers on each side. The captain 
of the Clotilda was kept out of the way and Meaher proved 
that he had been in and about Mobile all the time. The 
result was that he was acquitted. After everything had 
blown over the slaves w^ere divided by Meaher among 
different persons in interest. Many of the negroes 
remain in the neighborhood of the river above Mobile, 
and there, in what is called "Afticky Town," they speak an 
African language which their neighbors do not understand. 
Parts of the hull and the copper of the Clotilda are still 
in the mud of the bayou. 

8. The Alabama Platform. Meantime the negro, 
however contented at home, was becoming a bone of 
contention in the nation at large. The Northern feeling 
against the slaveholder went so far as to affect the churches, 
and not a few members opposed slaveholders having any 
official position. This resulted in breaking several of the 
denominations into northern and southern branches. The 
difference became acute from the time Harriet Beecher 
Stowe published her touching but untrue story of "Uncle 
Tom's Cabin." Clay's Compromise of 1850 soon became a 
dead letter. The situation gave rise to a new party 
called the Republican, whose platform was exclusion of 



286 Under Five Flags 

slavery from the territories common to all the states, and 
many of its leaders were opposed to slavery itself. The 
Abolitionists were members of this party, although not at 
first controlling. On the other side, there was developed 
in the South what was called the States Rights branch of 
the Democratic party, who were extremists in the South 
just as the Abolitionists were in the North. They were 
especially strong in South Carolina, and in 1851 they held 
a convention in Montgomery which looked forward to 
secession as a remedy. The great mass of people were not 
ready for such action, and the Whigs suffered most from 
the state of affairs. At the North many of them became 
Republicans, and those at the South hardly knew w^hat to 
do. The Alabama Plattorm, as it was called, was definite, 
and seemed to gain favor as events in Kansas and elsewhere 
in the North and West showed the rapid growth of the 
Republicans. 

The climax w^as reached in the fall of 1859 when the 
fanatic John Brown led a raid into Virginia with the object 
of freeing the slaves. He was shot by soldiers led by Col. 
R. E. Lee and his men hung by law, but the South could no 
longer feel safe from Abolitionist attacks. 

9. Summary. The tension was as great at Mobile as 
anywhere else. Mobile under the American flag had 
passed far beyond what it had been under the French, 
British or Spanish. It was a city of between twenty and 
thirty thousand people instead of one or two thousand, 
and, instead of trade with scattered Indian tribes, it was 
the port for the cotton of the great Alabama-Tombigbee 
Basin, now settled by energetic Americans. The rapid 
changes of flags in the past make an interesting story, but 
this change of institutions had retarded the growth of the 
country. It was only in American times that it came to 
its own, and within this epoch several subdivisions can be 



State and Federal Affairs 287 

noted. Under the Territory it was a town of promise, 
but only when it became a city in the twenties did it 
begin to make much progress. This reached its zenith 
in the thirties, but, after the panic, came a time of depres- 
sion. This had its good effect, for it made Mobihans 
imitate the East, and, instead of relying wholly upon the 
ri\er, they built a great railroad of their own. The pros- 
perous fifties were the result. 

And now all was to be put in jeopardy by a Civil War. 




BATTLE FLAG 
OF THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY 



PERIOD VII. 

IN THE CONFEDERACY 

1861-1865 



A UTHORITIES 

Documents. Mobile Register Files; municipal records 
of Mobile; papers of Mobile Supply Association; War of 
the Rebellion records; Letters and Pamphlets of war times. 

Travel. T. C. DeLeon, Four Years in Rebel Capitals. 

Histories. T. J. Scharf, The Confederate States Navy 
(1904); C. C. Andrews, Campaign of Mobile, (1867); F. L. 
Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, (1905); 
W. Brewer, Alabama, (1872); Wm. Garrett, Public Men 
of Alabama, (1872); Joseph Hodgson, Cradle of the Con- 
federacy, (1876); J. C. Schwab, The Confederate States of 
America, (1901); Richard Taylor, Destruction and Recon- 
struction, (1903.); R. Semmes, Service Afloat, (1869.) 

In a class by itself fcr American times (including the 
Confederate period) is T. M. Owen, Bibliography of 
Alabama. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

SECESSION. 

1. Election of Lincoln. The states below the Ohio and 
the Potomac had so much in common, both in blood and 
institutions, that they were generally known as the South. 
The foundation of all was Virginia, with some variations 
due to Maryland and Carolina; for even Georgia was 
largely Virginian. The principal institution common to 
them all was negro slavery. The slaves formed hardly 
a third of the population of the South, but in Alabama 
in 1860 were 435,080 as against 526,271 whites. They 
were in the homes as well as the fields, and were not only 
the laboring class, but formed as large a part of the wealth 
of the country as the land itself. The slaves were quiet 
and yet emotional, and no one could tell what might be 
the result ot excitement among them. On the other 
hand, at the North the Abolitionists were active in preach- 
ing freedom tor them and occasionally some Northerner 
Avas tound in the South endeavoring to incite the negroes 
lo insurrection. Abraham Lincoln was in tavor of limiting 
slavery to the Southern States, but many ot his followers 
went further, and the South believed that his election 
meant some form of abolition. Old party lines were there- 
tore forgotten. The Democrats were themselves divided 
between two candidates, Breckinridge and Douglas, 
while conservativ^c men united in a Union Party to put up 
Bell and Everett. The Union Party emblem of a little 
gold bell was picturesque and to be seen on watch chains 
everywhere. Breckinridge represented the extreme South- 
ern view as to the right to carry slaves into the territories, 
while Douglas of Illinois advocated letting each territory 
decide for itself. Douglas visited Mobile during the 



292 Under Five Flags 

campaign and in an address at the court house told the 
people, that, while slavery must be safeguarded under 
the conditions at the South, it was not favored by modern 
civilization. "Gentlemen," he said, rising on his tiptoes 
until he seemed almost a large man, "on this issue the 
world is against you." At about the same time Yancey 
made an address at the same place, and, hooting the idea 
of war by the North in case of secession, declared that he 
would undertake to drink all the blood that would be 
spilled. Excitement ran very high, but the division of the 
Democrats enabled the Rebublican ticket to obtain the 
majority of the electorial votes, although the majority ot 
the actual voters were opposed to Lincoln. 

2. Preparation. Lincoln's election created a profound 
impression, and at Mobile, as elsewhere, it was thought 
to mean great harm to the South. The legislature which 
met before the presidential election had passed a law re- 
quiring the governor, in case of the election of a Republi- 
can, to call a convention to determine what the state should 
do. Governor Moore waited until the electoral votes 
were counted and then called an election for delegates. 
The campaign was exciting, but there was no difference of 
opinion as to secession. It was agreed upon as necessary; 
there was a difference merely as to whether Alabama 
should secede alone, or await the co-operation of other 
states. 

Without waiting tor secession. Gov. Moore directed 
Col. Todd of the first regiment to capture Forts Morgan 
and Gaines and the arsenal at Mount Vernon, and this 
was accomplished without bloodshed January 4, 186L 
Todd led the Cadets to the forts, where the single sergeant 
could not resist, and Captain Gracie with the Washington 
Light Infantry and Captain Woodruff with the Rifles 
secured the military supplies at Mount Vernon. The 



Secession 293 

governor thereupon notified the Federal government that 
he had taken this step as 'a precaution; and it was a wise 
precaution, as South Carolina's experience at Fort Sumter 
showed. 

3. Secession. When the convention assembled January 
7, 1861, it was found that those advocating immediate 
secession were in the majority. Mobile voted for co-opera- ^' 
tion, and her delegates were such men as E. S. Dargan, 
John Forsyth, John Bragg and Thomas H. Herndon. 
The convention met in the capitol at Montgomery and 
organized by electing as president William Brooks of 
Dallas County, the candidate of members who advocated 
separate secession. Nevertheless, the importance of harm- 
ony was fully realized, and ample opportunity was given 
for full discussion. Most of the addresses made were 
by co-operationists, but finally Yancey, the leader of the 
extremists, on January 11 closed the debate with a powerful 
speech. The vote, taken amid much excitement, was 
sixty to thirty in favor of immediate secession; and many 
of the minority changed their votes in order that the state 
might act as a unit, among them Jere Clemens of Madison, 
who made the famous exclamation "I walk with 3^ou into 
revolution," This action was taken in secret session. 
The streets outside were thronged with people from all 
over the state, and when the doors of the capitol were 
thrown open the house was filled with the cheering multi- 
tude. A great flag, with the coat of arms of the state, 
made by ladies of Montgomery, was suspended as if by 
magic behind the president's chair. 

4. How the Neivs was Received. The action of the con- 
vention was popular and there were rejoicings from the 
Tennessee Valley to the Gulf. It was generally thought 
that the disruption of the Union would not be resisted 
and that the Southern States would be able to take such 



294 Under Five Flags 

concerted action as they saw fit ; but this was not the view 
of everyone, especially at Mobile. Many citizens doubted 
secession as a legal remedy, although no one questioned the 
right of revolution. In one Whig home on Government 
Street where the portrait of Daniel Webster had long 
held the place of honor in the library, it was marked as a 
coincidence, that, during the illuminations and rejoicings 
down town over secession, this picture fell and was crushed 
to atoms. But there was no doubt that secession was 
everywhere accepted as a fact, and preparations were made 
on that basis. 

5. Acts of the Republic of Alabama. While the passage 
ot the ordinance ot secessibn was the critical action oi the 
convention, other ordinances were adopted designed to 
cover the needs of the state, which had now become as it 
were an independent nation. Military affairs vv'ere reor- 
ganized, Thaddeus -Sanford, the old Federal collector, 
continued as collector of customs at Mobile for the State 
of Alabama, and, to allay opposition in the West, it was 
declared that the navigation of the Mississippi River 
should be free to all states. On the other hand, no change 
was made in the postal arrangements, and the United 
States mails were carried throughout the South as usual 
lor months after secession. After a while the postmasters 
at different towns, and notably at Mobile, issued local 
postage stamps for letters. Mobile issued two stamps, 
live cents and ten cents, which bore the same device, — a 
large star in the centre with a soldier and sailor on each 
side, the figure ten or five in the centre. The only dift'er- 
ence was that the ten cent stamp was black and the five 
cent was blue. As these stamps were soon superseded by 
these of the Contederate government, they have become 
very rare. The governor was A. B. Moore, but he was suc- 
ceeded by Thomas H. Watts, Alabama's "War governor." 



Secession. 



295 



6. The Confederacy. Even the advocates of indepen- 
dent secession had not intended Alabama to remain alone 
in that action. South Carolina had already seceded on 
December 20, and Mississippi was two days ahead of 
Alabama. Florida, Georgia and Louisiana also acted in 
January. Delegates from these states met at Montgomery 
and on February 4 organized a Provisional Government of 
the Confederate States, 

which was inaugurated five 
days later. The constitu- 
tion was ratified by the 
state convention on March 
4. After the inauguration 
of Mr. Lincoln and the 
surrender of Fort Sumter to 
the Confederates, the Unit- 
ed States government call- 
ed for 75,000 volunteers. 
This caused Virginia to 
secede on April 25, followed 
by Arkansas, North Caro- 
lina and Tennessee, and 
the Confederate govern- 
ment was moved to Rich- 
mond. The Confederate 
president, Jefferson Davis, 
also called for volunteers. 
The four years war was on. 

7. Fortifications. While there seemed little danger that 
Mobile would suffer from a land attack, its importance as 
a port led to its being carefully fortified in all directions 
by engineers Led better and Von Scheliha. Fort Morgan 
was now held by a strong force, as was Fort Gaines, built 
within a few years by the United States government near 




JOHN FORSYHI 



296 Under Five Flags 

the site of old Port Dauphin. At different times after- 
wards other points were fortified, such as Fort Powell 
guarding Grant's Pass near Dauphine Island, and Bat- 
teries Gladden and Mcintosh on little islands at the mouth 
of the river. These protected a double line ot piling which 
was driven across the mouths of the rivers and was known 
as the "Obstructions," while in the channels which were 
left open here and at Mobile Point were placed torpedoes, 
a Confederate invention which wrought great havoc. 
The city itself was surrounded by three lines of earthworks. 
The first built was too far out to be held except by a 
larger force than was available, and so afterwards the lines 
were drawn closer in. The one closest in passed from the 
Bay at Frascati through the pine forest east of Ann Street 
until it rested on One Mile Creek. This left many resi- 
dences outside the line, and later Maury thought it 
necessary to cut down the beautiful oaks and shrubbery 
on Spring Hill Avenue. All in all, Gen. Joseph E. John- 
ston pronounced Mobile the best fortified city in the 
Confederacy. 

8. River Batteries. It had been a long time since the 
rivers had needed fortifications. The Federals were 90 per- 
sistent in attacking Confederate ports that it was thought 
Mobile might at some time fall, and to blockade the lower 
rivers in this event batteries were erected at 0\-en Bluff and 
Choctaw Bluff, possibly near old Maubila. There was no 
regular garrison maintained at these points, but they were 
ready for occupation at any time. The lesson of the Tenn- 
essee Valley in 1862 was not lost, for after the fall of Fort 
Henry gunboats came up the Tennessee to Florence and after 
the battle of Shiloh Huntsville was occupied. The Tennessee 
Valley was held by Confederates and Federals alternately 
throughout the War, but the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin 
remained inviolate. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 

RUNNING THE BLOCKADE. 

1. The Blockade. Some Southern statesman argued 
that the need of the world lor cotton was so great that 
Great Britain and France would intervene in favor of the 
South. The cotton did become scarce in both those coun- 
tries and there was strong sympathy for the South. This 
was increased when the United States undertook the enorm- 
ous task of blockading the whole Southern seacoast. 
England did not intervene, but she announced that only 
an effective blockade would be recognized. The South 
had no navy. Every Southern captain had felt in honor 
/bound to return his vessel to the United States before 
volunteering for the South. The result was that the 
United States had a good navy and were able from Northern 
ports to increase the number of ships, so that by the end 
of 1861 an effective blockade was established off most of 
the Southern ports. 

2. Sending Out Cotton. At first British ships had 
taken cotton out by the thousands of bales, and goods 
were brought in return; but now the cotton came to Mobile 
and could only be stored. The production of cotton on 
the plantations became smaller as the men were drawn off 
in the war, and much of what was produced lay idle in 
warehouses in the country and in towns, because it could 
not be shipped abroad. Some was manufactured at 
home, but the principal means of credit ot the Confederacy 
was cut off; for as she could not send cotton out, she could 
not buy arms and ammunition from Europe. Something 
was done across the line between Texas and Mexico, and 
in course of time some exchange was made between the two 
armies, but the cotton warehouses at Mobile remained full. 



298 Under Five Flags 

3. Havana. The history of Mobile had been connected 
with Cuba at the beginning of our story, and was now to 
be again. It was so long a voyage from Mobile to Liver- 
pool and there were so many of the United States war 
vessels on the seas that it was found better for such ships 
as could get out of the harbor that they should run to a 
port in a neutral country, like Cuba, which was still Span- 
ish. There they unloaded cotton and from there it was 
taken to Liverpool and elsewhere in English vessels, which 
could not be attacked. Nassau was the great port for 
the ships from the Atlantic cities,, but Havana was the 
resort of those from Mobile and New Orleans. In 1862 
New Orleans was captured by the United States navy 
under Farragut and Mobile became the chief Gulf port 
of the Confederacy. Agents were placed at Havana, who 
saw to the unloading of Southern cotton for Europe and 
the loading of goods destined for Mobile. There lived 
Confederate and Union officials, watching each other under 
the Spanish flag. The voyage from Mobile took about 
three days with the steamships then in use. The Federals 
had a great advantage, inasmuch as they remained in 
possession of Key West at the south end of Florida, only 
thirty miles from Havana; but by international law the 
power of any country extended three miles from shore, 
and if a Confederate vessel got within that limit the United 
States warships could not attack it. 

4. The Blockade-Runners. The price of cotton was so 
high and the importance of bringing in arms and medicine 
so great that a new business came into being. The Con- 
federate government sometimes sent out vessels to run 
the blockade, but generally this was done by private 
citizens, Confederate or English. It was necessary that 
the boat be swift and not easily seen, so that a special kind 
were built to run as fast as science knew, lying low 







Uk^-^ 



.^si 



Running the Blockade 299 

near the water, and jiainted a ^.ray color which could not 
be easily maae out. Dark or stormy nights were generally 
selected to run in or out, and then, with smoke cut off, 
lights out and all openings closea, the blockade-runner would 
take her swift flight. Many were captured and the 
cotton or goods benefited, the Northern instead of the South- 
ern armies, but on the other hand many got through in 
safety. Among those plying from Mobile were the Alice, 
the Denbigh, and the Red Gauntlet, which carried from 
six to tweh'e hundred bales of cotton at a time. H. O. 
Brewer ana Company were among the houses which owned 
their own ships, and A. J. Ingersoll, a descendant of the 
old Spanish Espejos, haa much to do with the blockade 
running business. Not a few of these vessels were built 
in England, and the machinery almost always was English. 
One of the smaller class was the Heroine, which, alter the 
War, was cut down and for a long time used as a Bay boat. 
She, like most of these vessels, had an iron hull. 

o. Sand Island Light House. The general goxcrnment 
had in order to aid the commerce of Mobile in the fifties 
built a brick lighthouse on Sand Island outside the mouth 
of the Bay. This was a massi^•c structure, over a hundred 
feet high, with winding stair inside ascending to the lantern 
at the top. It could be seen tor many miles by incoming 
and outgoing vessels, and was one of the best on the South- 
ern coast. It lay between Fort Morgan and the blackading 
squadron and so was sometimes used by the blockaders 
to look over into Mobile Bay. It therefore had now become 
an injury instead of a help to Mobile's shipping, and plans 
were reluctantly made to destroy it. A party of men 
was sent over for that purpose, and placed powder at the 
loot of the light house, and retired. The explosion did 
little damage, however, and it was necessary to try again. 
An expedition was therefore organized, one of whom was 



300 Under Five Flags 

N. K. Ludlow, a ship engineer and son of the old theatre 
manager at Mobile. They made for the island in a sail 
boat, placed a large charge of powder where it would be 
most effective, fired the fuse, and about daylight sailed 
back lor Ft. Morgan. In a little while the explosion oc- 
curred and was completely effective. It was a magnificent 
although a sad spectacle to see the product ot so much 
time and labor fall with a crash; but from that time on 
it was impossible lor the blockaders to see what was going 
on within the Bay. 

6. A Woman's Story. Among the Northerners who had 
moved to Mobile and become a good Southerner was 
Dr. J. R. Burgett, pastor of the Government Street Presby- 
terian church. He had married a daughter of a ship agent 
at Mobile, but, although he had come to a warm chmate, 
after a while his health was impaired and it was thought 
best tor him to go to the coast of the Mediterranean. 
There was at the time a good dea.l of cotton to go out, 
but no regular blockade-runner to carry it, and so the 
Swan, one of the Bay boats, was turned into a blockade 
runner and loaded for a trip. The passengers consisted 
of the Burgetts and others who had business abroad, and 
one dark night the boat stole out of the Bay. It was 
sighted by the Federal ffeet outside and chased, but was 
able to get away. Everything was then quiet for a day 
or two until near Key West .a Federal war vessel bore 
down upon them. The passengers were promptly sent 
below, all steam got up, and every effort made to escape. 
The enemy was too fast, however, and gained upon them, 
and cannon shot over the bows showed what they might 
expect. The ladies in the cabin saw what was inevitable, 
and on their own account got a white sheet and waved 
it out of a port-hole towards the enemy; and this was taken 
as a surrender, and acted on. There was nothing else 



Running the Blockade 301 

to do, anyhow, and so the Federal vessel came alongside 
to take her prize. Among her officers was a young man who 
had known Dr. Burgett in Ohio. After the surrender the 
two boats ceased to be enemies and passengers received 
the kindest treatment. The Swan was condemned in the 
court at Key West and the cotton taken North for sale. 
The officers and passengers were made prisoners and 
taken to Key West, where every courtesy was shown them, 
and ultimately sent to Ne^v York. 



THE LIFE OF THE PEOPLE 
CHAPTER XL. 

1. City Government. Forms of government remained 
the same during the war as they had been in peace. R. H. 
Slough was mayor, and the offices of aldermen and common 
council men were held by citizens who did not go to the army. 
The police were active and city affairs were carried on as 
usual. Whatever Abolitionists might think, the negroes 
showed no interest in the war except interest in the master 
who went away and the mistress and children who were 
sadly lett behind. One new feature ot government grew 
up, and that was taking care ot the families of soldiers. 
A soldier's pay was only eleven dollars a month beside his 
food and clothing, and that in Confederate paper, and this 
could do little for his family at home. The city authori- 
ties, therefore, saw to it that soldier's families had every- 
thing at lowest prices and helped in every way they could. 
Goods were brought down the railroads and rivers at 
special prices to enable the city to take care of the poor, 
and. public soup houses were opened in the city buildings 
on Church Street. 

2. Military Headquarters. There were a number of 
departments in the military service. New troops were 
instructed about Mobile and veterans camped out on Hall's 
Mill Road, while the cjuartermaster's department was busy 
with food and clothing which was brought down the river 
and railroads. The military offices were kept in the 
granite Custom House whose great iron gates still bore the 
coat of arms of the United States, and there the different 
commanding officers transacted business. Commanders 
were changed from time to time and possibly the best 
known was General Dabney H. Maury. The congressman 



The Life of the People 303 

trom Mobile was E. S. Dargan, and, as he had sent his 
family up the country for greater safety, he was able to 
tender his place at the northeast corner of Ann and Dauphin 
Street to Maury as a residence. This became the social 
headquarters of the city and under the beautiful oaks on 
its spacious lawn were many gatharings. In this house 
was given a dinner to General Forrest after his remarkable 
raid and capture of Memphis, and the walls ot the quaint 
old house, now a parsonage, could tell many tales of war 
and pleasure. 

3. Courts. The Latin proverb says that law ceases in 
time of war, but at Mobile all the old state courts continued, 
although business was small. The laws were not different, 
for the state continued to be the same state that it had 
always been, and its principal industry, planting, remained 
much as heretofore. Many ot the lawyers had gone into 
the war and their faces were not seen in the courts, but 
enough remained for such business as there was. The 
Confederate States passed a law seizing property of North- 
erners because they were enemies, and, this together with 
an occasional suit about a ship, ga^■e employment to the 
Confederate District Court. The judge was William G. 
Jones, who had been appointed under the United States 
and was now continued in office. While the Federals held 
the Tennessee Valley one Richard Busteeo was made 
Federal judge for Alabama, but his office was but a nominal 
one. 

4. Doctors. But if there was little need for lawyers 
there was much for doctors, for besides the home needs there 
had to be surgeons in the vast armies at the front. There 
was much difficulty in securing medicines, since the sup- 
plies had formerly come from Europe and the North, 
and were now cut off. When a blockade runner got 
through and brought calomel and (juinine i.t was a day of 



304 



Under Five Flass 



rejoicing to the profession. The Medical College had no 
graduates after 1861, but its valuable collections were care- 
fully preserved for better times. Ingenuity was increased 
by the lack of medicines, and many of the old remedies used 
by grandmothers and old mammies came again into active 
service. • 

5. Churches. Religion makes a special appeal in times 
of trouble and at Mobile the church services were well 

attended. The news from 
the front, even after a 
brilliant victory, was sad 
for many, and no family 
could tell what news the 
next mail might bring. 
After defeats there were 
days of public fasting and 
prayer and. after victories 
thanksgiving was made in 
the churches also. The 
ministers of all faiths, 
Catholic and Protestant 
and Jew, had. much to do in 
visiting the distressed at 
home, and the wounded, in 
hospitals, and in services 
over the dead, who were 
brought back. They also 
officiated in the camps near 
'the city and chaplains for the different regiments would 
sometimes fill city pulpits, while on the other hand preachers 
would exchange their homes for service among the soldiers 
in the field. One who became a Mobilian was well known 
in this service and his mystic feeling and. beautiful expres- 
sion made Abram James Ryan dear to many before his 




AURAM J. RYAN 



The Life of the People 305 

poetry had become famous. His "Conquered Banner" 
came later, but the feehng which underHes it was Uved by 
him in camps, amid soldiers of every faith. News of the re- 
vivals among the Confederate troops in the field found its 
way back home and many mothers and fathers were cheered 
by knowing that their sons were receiving good in the 
distant camps. 

6. Society. The poet tells us that man is a ''pendulum 
'twixt a smile and tear" and certain it is that the war 
times in Mobile were accompanied by much gaiet3^ The 
brothers were off in the army, but the girls were lett behind, 
and others' brothers from other states filled their places 
as best they could. Little boys might have to chaperone 
their sisters to balls, but when they arrived the officers 
in gray uniforms and brass buttons relieved them ot all 
further trouble. Dancing was the order of the day, and 
of the night, ano with visits to the camps made up a round 
of pleeisure. Many Louisiana and Missouri troops were 
camped at Mobile, and they became great favorities. 
A dear friend ot to-day might be on the train for Virginia 
to-morrow, but dear he remained and the soldiers' 
life at the front was followed with all keener interest that 
they had been friends here at home. Public entertain- 
ments were less frequent than before the War, but many 
homes were open. One that may be mentioned was that 
ot the famous Admiral, Raphael Semmes, at the north- 
west corner of Go\'ernment and Wilkinson, whose family 
were favorites with all. At these parties there might not 
be a great deal to eat, but good company made up the lack, 
and this side of war time was long remembered. 

7. Books. One would suppose that literature would be 
almost the first thing injured, by the War, but in Mobile 
the contrary occurred. There had long been a complaint 
about school books that they were generally written in 



306 Under Five Flags 

the North and printed there and from a point of view which 
was not in sympathy with Southern hfe. After the War 
began it became difficult to get any books through the 
lines, and even Bibles had to be brought from England. 
So it is not strange that Madame Chaudron should take 
up the needed task of supplying school-books and write 
a set of readers, and she did more. The historical novels 
of Louisa Muhlbach were then coming out in Europe and 
Madame Chaudron translated from the German "Joseph 
II and His Court," and hers has ever since remained the 
standard translation. These books were published by 
S. H. Goetzel & Co. on Dauphin Street, and were widely 
used. Joseph II was published with back made oi wall 
paper, tor all kinds of paper w^ere so scarce that this became 
common for books. A Southern writing paper was also 
manufactured, and extensively used. Military books were 
also needed, and it was at Mobile that Goetzel published 
Hardee's Infantry Tactics, in two small pocket volumes. 
This was adopted and universally used in the Confederate 
army. 

8. Stores. If one walked along Dauphin Street he would 
see the same stores, but after the first year he would not 
find much to buy. There was much homespun, for that 
was manufactured at home, and groceries such as could 
be raised in the country adjacent. But silks and ribbons 
and luxuries, whether of food or raiment, were absent. 
When the Denbigh or the Red Gauntlet got in from Havana, 
however, with a cargo of European articles, business 
would liven up and for some weeks the stores would oft'er 
a much greater selection. Ladies continued their shop- 
ping, generally in carriages, for until the middle of the 
war horses remained numerous. But carriages them- 
selves gradually came to look somewhat worn, like the 
hearts within them, although the manners were as cordial 



The Life of the People. . 307 

and as courtly as of old. Tea and coffee practically 
disappeared, but it was found that the coffee weed sup- 
plied a passable substitute, and that sweet potatoes, 
sliced fine and parched, could hardly be told from coffee, — 
especially after one had not had any coffee in a year. Coffee 
sometimes got through the blockade, and sometimes 
was among the goods obtained irom the "Yankees," as 
the Federals were called, in exchange for cotton. One 
time a blockade runner was beached near Fort Morgan, 
and a man found a sack of coffee on her, but, after getting 
it ashore, he lett it in the marsh for fear he would be arrested 
for illegal trading with the enemy. Vegetables, of course, 
were plentiful, and many of the hands who were now 
kept from their farm work were used in the gardens. But 
prices were different as the War went on, for Confederate 
money gradually lost its purchasing power. Two hundred 
dollars for a barrel of flour and finally even for a pair of 
shoes, and twelve hundred dollars for a suit of clothes, 
were not unknown. Towards the end of the War, people 
said that a market basket was as much needed to carry the 
paper money down town as to bring back the articles which 
it would buy. 

9. Supply Association. Much of the trade of Mobile 
has always been with New Orleans. This was cut off in 
1862 and many people from there refugeed to Mobile. Not 
only did this diminish supplies, but the Federal torce 
advanced and held the country as far as Pascagoula on 
the coast. After the siege ot Vicksburg, operations ot 
troops on both sides affected much of Mississippi, which 
through the Mobile and Ohio and its connections was the 
trade territory ot Mobile. Prices became high and it was 
thought that part of this was due to speculators, who were 
accused of buying up goods and selling them to the people 
at a high price. During war time ordinary business 



308 - Under Five Flags 

is affected and new plans are necessary to meet new condi- 
tions. Some public spirited citizens therefore got together 
and under the name of The Mobile Supply Association 
arranged to secure food and clothing from the adjacent 
country, and sell it to the citizens at the lowest price, 
after paying expenses. The secretary of the Association 
was Thomas A. Hamilton and the man in active charge 
of the store in the basement of Temperance Hall was 
James W. Holmes. Soon the country was bare and it 
became necessary to send agents up the Mobile & Ohio, 
the Montgomery Railroad, and up the rivers in search of 
supplies; for the Confederate army impressed everything 
that could be readily found. Agents ot the Association 
went as far as East Tennessee, Charleston and even to 
Richmond, and shipped goods back to Mobile. The 
railroads were under military control, but every aid was 
given to the Association's good work. Corn, bacon and 
rice were the principal things obtained, but occasionally 
potatoes, cabbage and even turkeys and venison were 
shipped in, and through most of the War Mobile had per- 
haps the cheapest market for food supplies in the Con- 
federacy. 

10. News from the Front. SuppHes now came down the 
river rather than went up to the plantations, for the 
country raised food for the city. In town business was 
much lessened alter the blockade was established, but 
everything pertaining to war was much in evidence. There 
were camps, troops departing for the front, and drills 
and reviews in public places, such as Government Street. 
Many Mobilians were in the- army and some in high office 
at the Confederate capital. John A. Campbell was assist- 
ant secretary of war, and Wm. C. Gorgas, who had married 
a daughter of Gov. Gayle, was chief of ordenance and so in 
charge of the iron works of Alabama as well as of Virginia. 



The Life of the People 309 

News from the seat of war was much sought, for as time 
wore on there was hardly a family which did not supply a 
relative to the army, and whether a battle was fought in 
Virginia, on the Mississippi River, or in Tennessee, it 
would affect people in Mobile. The newspapers were 
full of reports, often of an encouraging nature, but every 
victory was purchased with lives dear to the families at 
,home. Mail and telegraph were often interrupted, and, 
while promotions were quickly known, it was often weeks 
before friends could scan the lists of the killed and wounded. 
The newspaper offices were thronged with inquiries at the 
time of any battle, and the public rejoicing over victory 
was always tinged with private grief for the lost. Military 
music and military uniforms were everywhere on the 
streets, but every month there were more women dressed 
in black. 



CHAPTER XLI. 

MOBILE SOLDIERS. 

1. The Course of the War. The Civil War was fought 
out in parts of the South which were not close to Mobile, 
and there was from the beginning an eastern and western 
army which operated tar away irom the Gulf. The former 
was under General Lee and fought in Virginia and over 
the border to the north as the Army of Northern Virginia. 
The latter was on the middle Mississippi and Cumberland 
Rivers and then about Chattanooga, at first under General 
Joseph E. Johnston and afterwards under Braxton Bragg, 
and was known as the Army of the Tennessee. There was 
for a time a separate army on the lower Mississippi, which 
got shut up in Vicksburg under Pemberton, and later a 
Trans-Mississippi Department under Kirby Smith and Dick 
Taylor, alter the Federals by capturing Vicksburg had cut 
the Confederacy in two. Mobile was at all times exposed 
to naval attacks upon the forts at the mouth of the Bay, 
but the city was for a long time spared the danger ot assault 
by land. The Federals obtained control of the northern 
part of the Mobile & Ohio Railroad early in the war, but 
except in raids they never came below Meridian. There 
was even less danger from the rivers and from the east, 
so that Mobile was able to send many of her men to the 
front in other states. To such an extent was this done 
that the garrisons at the mouth of the Bay and in camp 
near the city were not Mobilians, but troops who had 
come after the fall of New Orleans and Vicksburg. Mobil- 
ians fought in all armies except that beyond the Mississippi. 

2. First Volunteer Regiment. The first regiment ot 
Alabama Volunteer Corps was part of the militia organiza- 
tion in existence when the state seceded. It was made up 



Mobile Soldiers 



311 



of Mobile companies. These were as follows: City 
Troop, Captain Wm. Cottrill; State Artillery, Captain 
W. H. Ketchum; German Fusiliers, Captain H. Steinberg; 
Mobile Cadets, Captain R. M. Sands; Washington Light 
Artillery, Captain Archibald Oracle; Independent Rifles, 
Captain A. Stikes; Mobile Rifles, Captain L. T. Woodruft"; 
Gardes LaFayette, Captain A. Belloc; Gulf City Guards, 
Captain Wm. A. Buck; Alabama Light Dragoons, Captain 
Theodore O'Hara; and the 
Bienville Blues, Captain 
John Forsyth. The colonel 
was John B. Todd and the 
lieutenant colonel John R. 
Ketchum. When secession 
was imminent. Governor 
Moore ordered this regi- 
' ment into state service 
January 3, 1861, and it was 
detachments from it that 
took possession of Mount 
Vernon Arsenal, Fort Mor- 
gan and Fort Gaines for the 
state of Alabama. Upon 
the foundation of the Con- 
federate government dif- 
ferent companies from this 
regiment went into the Con- 
federate service. The 

Cadets, Gulf City Guards, Washington Light Infantry, and 
the Rifles entered the third Alabama at the same time. 

3. Alabama Troops in the Civil War. The fall of Fort 
Sumter on April 13, 1861, was the beginning of the Civil 
War. President Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand 
Union troops, and this was the turning point with many 




ARCHIBALD GRACIE 



312 Under Five Flags 

people in the South. Old Line Whigs who were not seces- 
sionists now saw a war ot invasion, and all hesitation was 
at an end. President Davis on his side called for troops, 
and regiments were formed, officered and drilled all over 
the state. Most of these were enlisted for one year, as 
it was not thought that the war would be long. It proved 
otherwise, and, as the time ran out tor the earlier commands, 
their men often re-enlisted in the later regiments. All 
told there were raised in Alabama sixty-three or sixty-five 
state regiments ot infantry, besides twelve Confederate 
regiments, and a number of artillery and cavalry organiza- 
tions, embracing upwards of a hundred thousand men. 
In almost every regiment were companies from different 
parts of the state, and Mobile in this way was represented 
on many battle fields. 

4. First and Second Alabama. The First Alabama 
Regiment was organized at the beginning of 1861 and a' 
Mobile company under Ben Lane Posey served with it in 
garrison at Pensacola and under Johnston in the West. 
The Second Alabama was a twelve month organization 
containing several Mobile companies. During that time 
they were on garrison duty at Fort Morgan and manned the 
heavy artillery there. Later they became parts of other 
regiments, and saw service in different parts of the country. 

5. The Third and Twelfth Regiments in the East. The 
Third Alabama was organized in April, 1861, and was the 
first that went to Virginia from Alabama. It was for a 
while at Norfolk, and in the great battles around Rich- 
mond, and fought through to Appomattox, where only 
forty men were left to surrender. Jones M. Withers of 
Mobile was colonel, as Tennent Lomax and Charles 
Forsyth were afterwards, while Robert M. Sands was 
lieutenant-colonel. Among the Mobile captains, besides 
Sands, were John R. Simpson, Archibald Gracie (after- 



Mobile Soldiers 313 

wards a general and commemorated by a Mobile street), and 
Lewis T. Woodruff. No regiment in the War had a more 
glorious record. 

The Twelfth Alabama also had Mobile companies, such 
as those of A. Stikes, A. Proskauer, and W. T. Walthall, 
while a lieutenant-colonel was Theodore O'Hara, already 
author of the beautiful poem "Bivouac of the Dead." 
This regiment served in Virginia, as at Malv^ern Hill under 
Rodes, at Chancellorsville, Gettsyburg, and later in 
Virginia under John B. Gordon. At Appomattox fifty 
were left to surrender. 

6. Alabama Regiments in the West. Even more regi- 
ments served in the West. The Twenty-first Alabama was 
mustered in at Mobile in 1861, and aiter service nearby 
was in the Western Army. Almost one-third ol its members 
were killed at Shiloh. It was later at Fort Morgan and at 
Fort Powell on the Bay where it suffered a fortnight 
bombardment from Grant's Pass from guns of longer 
range than the Confederates had. Many of its men were 
withdrawn from Fort Powell in time to escape capture by 
Farragut, although some surrendered under Colonel 
Anderson at Fort Gaines. James Crawford was the first 
colonel, A. J. IngersoU lieutenant-colonel, and J. M. Wil- 
liams, George Vidmer, John F. Jewett, Gary W. Butt and 
Murdock Mclnnis were among its officers. 

The Twenty-second Alabama Regiment served at Shiloh, 
Chickamauga, and under Hood about Atlanta. The first 
colonel was Zach Deas, and among the later ones was 
Harry T. Toulmin. Several ot the companies were from 
Clarke and other counties in Southern Alabama. 

The Twenty-fourth Alabama, like the Twenty-second 
dating from 1861, also served in the west at Corinth, 
Chickamauga, in Tennessee and at last in the Carolinas. 
The first colonel was William A. Buck, and among the 



314 Under Five Flags 

captains were Starke H. Oliver, Alphonse Hurtel and 
John B. Hazard. 

7. Regiments of 1862. The Thirty-second Alabama 
dates from 1862 and served in Mississippi, at Chickamauga 
and elsewhere under Alexander McKinstry as colonel and 
Harry Maury as lieutenant-colonel. Among the captains 
were Hinson H. Smith, Thomas S. Easton and Thomas S. 
Fry. This regiment was afterwards re-organized as the 
Fifty-eighth. 

The Thirty-sixth was organized by Robert H. Smith 
in 1862, in part from his clients, and Thos. H. Hern- 
don and Lewis T. Woodruff were lieutenant-colonels, and 
afterwards promoted. It served at Chickaumaga, Atlanta, 
Nashville and Spanish Fort, and surrendered with thin 
ranks at Meridian. 

8. Later Regiments. The Thirty-eighth Alabama, or- 
ganized in 1863, was also in the Western Army, where it 
served under Colonel Charles T. Ketchum. W. J. Hearin 
ot Clarke County was a major, and Ben Lane Posey one of 
the captains. It was finally at Spanish Fort and elsewhere 
in the detense of Mobile, and surrendered at Meridian. 

The Fortieth Alabama was organized also in the same 
year and under Colonel Higley served with General Braxton 
Bragg. Both the Forty-second and Forty-third had 
Mobile men and officers, and the Fifty-sixth was organized 
in 1863 and under William A. Boyles of Mobile acted 
with General Hood. The Sixty-fifth was made up from 
reserves in 1864 and under Colonel E. M. Underhill 
operated in Mississippi and Alabama towards the close 
of the war. 

One of the most interesting organizations was the 
First Battalion of Alabama Cadets. Like the Cadets 
who fought for the University of Alabama, they illustrated 
how patriotism robbed both the cradle and the grave. 



Mobile Soldiers 



315 



This battalion was made up ot two companies of Mobile 
boys, the Pelham Cadets under Captain Price Williams, 
Jr., and the Maury Cadets under Captain Dick Roper. 
The former served on 
Dauphine Island, and, 
while some surrendered at 
Fort Gaines, others were 
successfully brought off. 
The Maury Cadets were in 
action at Spanish Fort and 
both commands retired 
with General Maury up th(> 
Mobile and Ohio Railroad. 
9. Cavalry. The regi- 
ments above mentionet' 
were of infantry, but 
Mobile was represented in 
the other arms also. Thirc' 
Alabama Cavalry con- 
tained Mobile companies. 
Its colonel was James 
Hagan, and. among the 
captains were Paul 

Ravesies. It operated in Tennessee, Kentucky and about 
Atlanta. Hagan became a dashing general. The Fifteenth 
Contcderate Regiment was made up of South xAlabama com- 
panies which had been for some tinae on the coast about 
Mobile and in Louisiana. Its colonel was Harry Maury, 
and among the captains were John H. Marshall, William 
Cottrill and Joseph E. Murrell. There were also com- 
mands engaged in scouting in Baldwin County after Pensa- 
cola had been abandoned by the Confederates. Some of 
these daring scouts entered Pensacola at will and ob- 
tained information of the enemy's movements. 




JAMES HAGAN 



316 



Under Five Flags 



10. Artillery. The fortifications about Mobile led to 
a large use of artillery, in which the garrisons took much 
interest and became very proficient. The first Alabama 
Battalion of Artillery was part of the original army of 
Alabama organized in February, 1861, and operated at 
Forts Morgan, Gaines and Powell against the blockaders. 
They had to surrender to Farragut finally, however, and 
the officers were imprisoned in Fort Warren, among them 
R. C. Forsyth. Captain Julian W. Whiting from Fort 
Morgan and Captain Price Williams, Jr., from Fort Gaines 
managed to make their escape and joined the army operat- 
ing about Mobile. One of the Fort Morgan guns is now 
mounted in Duncan Place, Mobile. 




CONFEDERATE CANNONl 

11. The Home Guard. After the younger men had been 
taken into the armies in the field and the old militia organ- 
ization had been broken up, both the state and Confederacy 
encouraged the formation of Home Guards made up of men 
exempt by law from military duty. These were formed 
into companies, of whom some were even foreign subjects, 
such as the British. The Confederacy had none too much 



Mobile Soldiers 317 

of military stores, and there was difficulty sometimes in 
arming these reserves. Alexander McKinstry suggested 
that they be supplied with pikes, and accordingly old iron 
was beaten into blades which were fastened on the end of 
poles. Armed in this manner, the Home Guards were 
drilled and ready for any emergency. Among them might 
be found fathers of the boys in the regular army, prepared 
to defend their homes. 

1£. ''^ Soldier^ s Rest.''^ Many troops that did not come 
from Mobile or even camp there long were represented in 
the hospitals, and were tended by the mothers and sisters 
of those who w^ere far away in Virginia or in the Western 
Army. Incoming trains brought back not only the wound- 
ed to be nursed, but often, too, they brought the bodies of 
soldiers who had died in battles near the city, and the 
thought came to Mrs. P. J. Pillans as she was nursing in 
the hospital that the Confederate dead should lie together 
in some honored spot. She wrote a short note to John 
Forsyth suggesting a "Soldier's Rest," and he urged it in the 
Register. The plan struck a popular chord and the city 
in 1862 set aside a place in the southern part of Magnolia 
Cemetery and named it "Soldiers' Rest." Here were 
buried, many who were sent home, and to this was trans- 
ferred at different times soldiers who were killed in battle 
nearby. Many had to be marked "unknown," but Mobile 
soldiers also died unknown on distant fields, and the same 
tender care was taken of strangers who fell here in her de- 
fence. Decoration Day was not thought of until after 
the War, but the affection which inspired it showed itself 
in other ways during these long four years. 

13. '^GeneraV^ Semmes. After the loss of the Alabama 
her commander was without a ship, for the Confederacy 
was not in condition to supply another. He returned to 
the South on a British vessel, landing near the mouth of the 



318 , Under Five Flags 

Rio Grande, and came back to his family in Mobile aiter 
an absence of four years. He reported by wire to Rich- 
mond, but such was the condition of the war-swept country 
that it took him two weeks to reach the capital. After a 
short service as rear admiral in charge of the James River 
squadron, Richmond was evacuated and he destroyed his 
little fleet, turning the sailors into soldiers. Then while 
Richmond was burning and the Federals were entering the 
capital, he improvised a railroad train and escaped with 
his command to Danville. They then marched as a brigade 
of artillery to Greensboro, N. C, where they joined the 
command of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston. The war was 
practically over, and Semmes' force was included in the 
surrender of Johnston .to Sherman at that place. As 
there had been a good deal of feeling against him for des- 
troying the commerce of the United States, Semmes was 
careful to have himself described in the parole as Admiral 
as well as General, and, after the army broke up and he had 
reached his home, he found that his caution had been well 
exercised. He was arrested at Mobile in the tall and carried 
to Washington, where he was imprisoned in the Navy 
Yard and elsewhere. His parole saved him, and he was 
finally released, and came back to Mobile. 

14. Braxton Bragg. One of the most distinguished 
soldiers of the Confederacy was Braxton Bragg, who suc- 
ceeded A. S. Johnston at Shiloh, and was. the hero of the 
victory of Chickamauga. He was a North Carolinian by 
birth, brother of Judge John Bragg of Mobile, and after 
the War was over was in Mobile in charge of the work of 
deepening the channel by means of jetties. During the 
War William H. Ross, Claude H. Mastin and other Ala- 
bamians were on his staff in different capacities, and many 
Mobile regiments served under Bragg at difi^erent times. 
He was buried in the "Soldiers' Rest" with militarv honors. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

MOBILE SAILORS. 

1. Sea Poiver. In no other conflict has the influence 
of sea power been so fully shown as during the American 
Civil War. The Southerners who were in the American 
navy took their ships into Northern ports and surrendered 
their commissions before tendering their services to the 
Confederacy. The result was that the North had the whole 
of the old navy to begin wath, and before the South devel- 
oped a new navy her ports were all blockaded. Unless 
this could be changed, the result would be that the North 
could draw upon the whole world for men and supplies, 
while the South would be shut up to its own resources, and 
unable to ship its great staple, cotton. The eftorts of 
Southern naval men, therefore, were directed to several 
ends. The first was running the blockade in and out, 
another was destroying the Northern commerce upon the 
high seas wherever it could be found, and still another was 
to build up an offensive navy which would break up the 
blockade and ultimately attack Northern ports. The 
first end was fairly well attained, but little was done to 
carry out the last. In the matter of destroying Northern 
commerce by cruisers, howe\'er, the South w'as quite suc- 
cessful. The Northern marine was driven from the ocean, 
and this was done largely by the Confederate cruisers 
Sumter, Alabama and Florida. The Florida was for a 
while in Mobile waters, while the Alabama was not, but 
the commander of the Alabama was a Mobile man, who 
li\ed here before and after his career at sea. 

2. Raphael Semmes. A member of an old Baltimore 
family, Raphael Semmes moved further south and in 1841 
was living on Perdido Bav. ShortK' afterwards he made 



320 



Under Five Flags 



Mobile his home, and then became secretary of the United 
States Light House Board. This took him to Washington, 
and he was there at the outbreak of the war. His sympath- 
ies, Hke those ot most Marylanders, were with the South, 
and when the Confederate government was organized at 
Montgomery he promptly responded to its call. He 

resigned trom the old navy, 
and, coming to Montgom- 
ery, was commissioned to 
look into naval matters for 
the Confederacy. He ex- 
amined the Tredegar 
Works at Richmond and 
was gratified to find that 
they could furnish the Con- 
federacy Avith guns and 
supplies. He went further 
North and was able to send 
workmen to the South. 

3. The Sumter. The 
first commissioned vessel 
of the Confederacy was the 
Sumter, which was armed 
and equipped at New Or- 
leans under the direction 
of Semmes. At a favorable 
time he took his vessel 
down the river in broad daylight, and passed the Brooklyn, 
which was blockading the mouth of the river. The Sumter 
was not a large vessel and could not engage any of the great 
vessels of the Federal navy. Its mission was to destroy 
the commerce of the Northern states, and this it did for 
many adventurous mon/ths. Semmes crossed to the West 
India Islands and afterwards to Brazil, capturing vessels 




RAPHAEL SEMMES 



Mobile Sailors . 321 

as he went. As the North had blockaded the Southern 
harbors, it was impossible to carry his prizes into Con- 
federate ports to be condemned and sold under the usual 
admiralty law, and therefore Semmes had to exercise the 
right of destroying the vessels and goods which he captured, 
except in some cases where they were released on bonds of 
their owners. The crews were taken prisoners and discharged 
at neutral ports. Interesting questions arose as to sup- 
plies for the Sumter. Since the Confederacy had been recog- 
nized by European powers as a belligerent, its vessels had 
the right to enter foreign ports and obtain limited supplies 
of coal and food. The Northern consuls and agents op- 
posed this and hampered Semmes in every way possible, 
but he did during the Civil "War what the great French 
Admiral, Suffren, did against the English in the East 
Indies centuries before. Cut off from any aid trom home, 
Semmes, like Suffren, lived on the commerce of the enemy. 
The Sumter crossed the ocean, but tound herself unable 
to obtain the necessary coal at Gibraltar, so that Semmes 
finally sold her in that port and with his crew went over to 
England. 

4. The Alabama. Colin J. McRae of Mobile was one 
ot the Contederate agents in Europe looking after the sale 
of cotton. He was very active, but the agent who saw to 
building and buying vessels for the Confederacy was James 
Bullock. Under the nose of the Federal ambassador 
C. F. Adams, he had built at Liverpool a vessel which had 
no other name than "No. 290" and was supposed to be 
destined for Italy. Finally in August, 1862, she went 
to sea on a trial trip — and never came back again. She 
slipped off to the Azores, where guns were put aboard, and 
Raphael Semmes took command as captain of the "Ala- 
bama." Her first blow was struck at the whale fishery 
and after cestro>'ing a number of vessels she sailed to the 



322 . Under Five Flags 

West Indies. At Martinique she was blockaded by the 
Federal steamer San Jacinto, whom she finally escaped, 
and after a while reached her only Confederate port, Gal- 
veston. Near there she had an engagement with United 
States steamer Hatteras, which she sank, and then proceed- 
ed to Jamaica with her prisoners. The 30th parallel is 
called by Semmes the "Toll Gate Upon the Sea" from the 
number of vessels which pass to and fro, and near here and 
also off Brazil the Alabama made many prizes. Occasion- 
ally Semmes would commission one of these captured 
vessels as a new cruiser, and in this way the damage by 
the Alabama was much increased. 

5. The Alabama in the East. Soon Semmes sailed across 
the ocean again and reached Cape Town. Here, as else- 
where in the British dominions, the Confederates were 
treated with great courtesy, for the private sympathy of 
the British as a rule was with the South. The government, 
however, aimed at strict neutrality. It was at this time 
that a prize ship was commissioned as the cruiser Tusca- 
loosa, and the Alabama continued her course to the Indian 
Ocean, capturing prizes and burning them as usual. 
Semmes had many interesting experiences and gathered 
a great deal of useful information, which he afterwards 
revealed in his famous book, "Memoirs of Service Afloat," 
published in Baltim.ore in 1869. The. Alabama passed 
through the Strait of Sunda, visited the port of Singapore, 
and returned through the Mozambique Channel to the 
Cape of Good Hope in good time; for Semmes was able to 
secure the release of the Tuscaloosa, which had been seized 
by the British. 

6. Cherbourg. The Alabama left on her return trip to 
Europe, capturing several vessels on the way, and arrived 
at Cherbourg in June, 1864. The United States cruiser 
Kearsarge was also in port, and the men of the vessels were 



Mohile Sailors 323 

anxious for an engagement. This was informally arranged 
and the Kearsarge cruised outside the marine limit until 
the Alabama came out. A battle followed, well contested, 
in which the Alabama was sunk after doing considerable 
damage to her enemy. Semmes was saved from the water 
by the English yacht Deerhound and a number of his 
crew rescued by other boats. This led to a bitter contro- 
versy between the Federal government and the British, 
in which secretary Seward demanded the surrender of the 
rescued men on the ground that the United States was 
entitled to have its enemies drowned, and, if rescued, they 
should become prisoners. Lord John Russell, the British 
premier, refused to surrender the men, and sympathy for 
Semmes ran high. He was presented with a sword and 
fla^ by English admirers. This, however, was the end of 
his career on the ocean. 

7. The Florida. In September, 18G2, a celebrated 
vessel ran into M.^bilc and gave rise to other questions 
between the United States and Great Britain, which were 
only solved years afterwards. This was the Florida, 
which had been built in England, nominally for Italian 
owners, and went to Nassau in the Bahama Islands. 
There Confederate officers took charge of her, and, sailing 
the British flag, she ran through the blockaders into 
Mobile Bay. She was commanded by Captain John N. 
Maffitt, and lay for four months near Montrose. The 
delay was caused by her having yellow fever on board, 
brought from the West Indies. Her crew was filled up, 
and S. Graham Stone of Mobile went aboard a ssecond 
in command. After being commissioned, she became in 
all respects a part of the Confederate navy. She had 
not done any damage to the United States commerce 
before her entry into Mobile Bay, but, after running the 
blockade out in January, 1863, she commenced destroying 



324 Under Five Flags 

Northern vessels wherever she could find them, and was 
second only to the Alabama in the number she sank. In 
addition to this, the Florida armed and sent out some of 
her captured prizes, with separate crews, and they did 
almost as much damage as the Florida herself. She was 
one of the few Confederate vessels that actually sailed 
from a Confederate port, and much stress was laid upon 
this by England when arbitration of the matter was had at 
Geneva. The only way the Federals could capture the 
Florida was by attacking her when off guard in a neutral 



y^ . _i^n^l.;.lm^1 


^ 



THE FLORIDA 

South American port, while her captain was ashore, and 
even then Stone was able to wrap her flag around his 
sword and throw them into the sea through a port-hole. 
There were many blockade-runners coming in and out, 
but the Florida was the only Confederate man of war 
that went to sea from Mobile. 

8. The Bay Fleet. After the surrender of New Orleans, 
Mobile became the principal port of the Confederacy on 
the Gulf of Mexico. It was not only strongly defended by 



Mobile Sailors 325 

forts on the land side and at the mouth of the Bay, but there 
was much local activity in naval matters. Expeditions 
were organized against Pensacola and New Orleans, and 
a squadron constructed for defence of the harbor, made up 
of river and Bay steamboats. It was not of the highest 
type, but it was the best that could be done, and promised 
to serve the purpose. Its three wooden gun-boats were 
called the Gaines, the Selma and the Morgan. Noah K. 
Ludlow, son of the theatre manager, had run on the Ala- 
bama River and Mail Line before the War and now, as 
Confederate engineer for this district, fitted up the Gaines 
and Morgan, and they were in service before the Ten- 
nessee came down the river. On them were a number of 
Mobile men, some who had never been in a naval engage- 
ment. Simon Klosky was there looking after the meals. 
An active officer was Thomas L. Harrison, executive officer 
on the Morgan. The Morgan was fortunate enough to 
escape serious injury in the battle, only one man being 
wounded, and after the surrender of the other vessels 
Harrison ran her through the enemy's fleet on a starlight 
night up to Mobile in safety, — the only vessel saved of the 
Confederate fleet. The Morgan and her officers were 
able to render good service in the subsequent operations 
about Spanish Fort and Blakely. 

9. The Submarine Hiinley. One new form of warfare 
took its origin in Mobile in LS63, when William A. Alex- 
ander and others superintended the construction of the 
first submarine boat, the Hunley, at Parks and Lyons 
iron works in the southern part of the city. It was tried 
successfully in the river and Bay. A crew of eight men 
managed her and she went down and came up as was plan- 
ned. Attempts were made to attack the blockading 
vessels, but they remained too far out, and it was not here 
that she was to meet the enemy. The Hunley was shipped 



326 Under Five Flags 

ped by rail over to Charleston, where she had the mis- 
fortune to sink three times and drown her crew, but there 
were always new volunteres. Finally in 1864 she attacked 
the monitor Hoosatonic and she sank her enemy, but with 
her crew was herself sunk by the backing of the monitor. 
The foes were found after the close of the w^ar close together 
at the bottom of the ocean ofif Charleston harbor. 




^f^.J 



^ 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

BA TTLE OF MOBILE BA Y. 

1. The Forts about Mobile. After the loss of the 
Mississippi Ri\'er the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin was the 
western district of the Confederacy, just as the James 
River Basin was the eastern, and between these hmits 
was waged the second half of the Civil War. General 
Maury was in command at Mobile, and says that as long 
as the port could be kept open Mobile was as important 
in the west as Richmond was in the east. Through the 
blockading squadron cotton went out, and through it 
came in supplies which were invaluable to the army and 
to the people. Great efforts were put forth to retain the 
Confederate hold upon such a strategic point, and daring 
attempts were made from here to recapture or destroy 
shipping about New Orleans, — not the less creditable be- 
cause unsuccessful. 

The importance of Mobile led to keeping strong garrisons 
at Fort Morgan on Mobile Point and at Fort Gaines on 
the east end of Dauphine Island, and active scouting 
parties under Capt. Moore operated towards Pascagoula. 
The fall of New Orleans made it essential to hold 
Mobile, the more so as Pensacola, too, w^as occupied by 
the Federals at an early date. When the Confederates 
abandoned Pensacola, they took up the railroad which 
had run from Montgomery, and relaid its rails westwardly 
to Tensaw River on the line of the Mobile and Great 
Northern Railroad. The result of the abandonment of 
Pensacola was that large forces operated south of this 
road, and Blakely and other points on the eastern shore 
were fortified against the Federal attack. The defence 
of Mobile, therefore, was an extensive undertaking, the 



328 Under Five Flags 

more so as General Grant at one time planned marching 
there from Vicksburg, and Sherman did make a raid 
which inflicted much damage on the Mobile and Ohio 
Railroad. Neither of them, however, reached Mobile. 
The actual danger was from the sea. 

2. Building the Tennessee. While war paralyzed agri- 
culture and every other business, there was one thing 
which the South owes to the Civil War, and that was the 
development of the Mineral Belt. It had long been known, 
but except in taking coal little use had been made of it. 
A short railroad had been built northwardly from Selma, 
which had the ambitious name of Alabama and Tennessee 
Railroad, but it had not got very far before the war stopped 
it. The Confederate government, now took charge 




THE TENNESSEE 

not only of the coal mines but of the iron mines and mills 
also, and at Selma built arsenals and foundries which played 
a great part in the W'ar. Oak and pine forests were also 
accessible and Ap. Catesby Jones made of the Selma works 
what the Tredegar works were at Richmond. It was at 
Selma the government hurried forward the building of 
the ram Tennessee in 1863 and 1864, and laid her keel 
while her other timbers were yet growing in the forests and 
the iron for her armor was still in the mines up the Cahaba 
valley. She was 209 feet long and 48 wide, and was never 
completed, but as soon as possible was towed down to 
Mobile to receive her five inch armor. This was fitted on 
a heavy pine and oak frame, slanting at an angle of 45 



Battle of Mobile Bay 329 

degrees. She carried two pivot rifled guns at the ends, and 
two in broadside on each side, and was finally thought to 
be in condition to meet the enemy daily expected at Fort 
Morgan. She now drew thirteen teet, and the Dog River 
Bar allowed but nine, and so it was necessary to sink 
wooden caissons or tanks and attach them to her, and, 
when they were pumped out, they raised her also and car- 
ried her over the bar. Then she hastened down to join 
the three gunboats which had been guarding the Bay. 
Of these the Morgan was the largest, and she carried only 
two seven-inch rifles and four thirty-two pounder guns. 
Admiral Buchanan, who had commanded the Virginia 
at Hampton Roads, was in charge of the Confederate 
squadron, and the Tennessee was his flag-ship. His whole 
force was four hundred and seventy men and twenty-two 
guns. 

3. Farragut and the Fort. It was as important for the 
Federals to capture Mobile as it was for the Confederates 
to defend it, and Admiral Farragut had been able to get 
together for this purpose a squadron consisting of fourteen 
wooden steam vessels and four iron monitors, carrying in 
all twenty-seven hundred men and one hundred and ninety- 
nine guns. He waited outside the Bay until early one 
morning, when he thought the inflowing tide would turn 
the fuses of the torpedoes away from his boats, and then 
steamed in, his ships lashed two and two. The monitors 
were on the side towards Fort Morgan, the Tccumsch in 
the lead. Second in line came the Brooklyn with her 
mate, and next the flagship Hartford, with Farragut tied 
in the rigging. As the stately procession neared the fort, 
both sides began a murderous cannonade. Suddenly 
the Tecumseh lurched, and in a few seconds sank, struck 
by a torpedo. As the boat was going down, and men were 
struggling for their lives, the lieutenant and the captain 



330 



Under Five Flags 



met at the narrow iron ladder. The heutenant stepped 
aside, whenCaptain Craven said, "After you, Lieutenant," — 
but after the Lieutenant came the inrushing waters, and 
Craven died at his post. A Httle boat had pushed out to 
save the few who did not go down with the Tecuniseh, 
and the Confederates chivalrously refused to fire on them, 
despite the Union flag defiantly raised. The Brooklyn, 
with her torpedo protector, wavered and backed, con- 
fusing the whole column, and giving the gunners in the 
fort an opportunity of which they made good use. It 
was then Farragut from the rigging uttered his famous 




CONFEDERATE RELICS 

exclamation, "Damn the torpedoes, go ahead," pushed 
the Hartford to the front and. restored order, and led the 
column amidst the galling fire into the Bay. One shell 
from bastion 5, tired by Capt. Whiting, exploded the boiler 
of the Oneida and killed or wounded forty m.en. 

But the fort was now passed and the fleet was inside the 
Bay beyond range of the fort guns. The garrison could 
only watch what followed, and far away at Cedar Point 
people, among them a little boy named Dorlon, gazed on 
one of the great battles of history until the smoke obscured 
the scene. 



Battle of Mobile Bay 



331 



4. A Naval Battle. The Federal fleet could fire over 
9,000 pounds of shot at a broadside, Confederate 1,500 all 
told, and in the engagement which followed, one Confed- 
erate gunboat was sunk, another captured and another 
finally got away to Mobile. The ram seemed to seek 
shelter for repairs under the guns of the fort, but then, 
to the astonishment of friend and foe, the Tennessee 
boldly made straight up 
the Bay to attack the Fed- 
eral squadron. Vessel after 
vessel rammed and fought 
her, but she held her own, 
unwa\ering, seeking the 
flagship Hartford, which, 
however, was too swift 
and kept out of her way. 
She engaged the whole 
fleet at once, in one of the 
most heroic naval combats 
of history, and did. not 
desist until her plates were 
loosened, port shutters 
jammed, smoke stack car- 
ried, away, many of the 
crew wounded, Admiral 
Buchanan disabled, and 
the steering apparatus shot 

away, so that she was as helpless as a log. 

5. The White Flag. There was no use fighting longer. 
The heat and smoke became unbearable and the guns 
could not be manned. The wounded Buchanan reluctantly 
gave the order to hoist the white flag, and soon a Federal 
officer came aboard to recei\'e the surrender. All honor 
and courtesy was shown to the defeated, and Farragut, 





H 


/ 


> 


* 


i 


V 




"^k 




' i 


^^^ 


•^ 


"^^^-N 


^^kj^^ 


\ . 


' ^^H ■ 



ADMIRAL BUCHANAN 



332 Under Five Flags 

after making arrangements with Fort Morgan, sent Buch- 
anan and the wounded prisoners in a vessel around to 
Pensacola. 

6. Fort Gaines. Troops landed on Dauphine Island 
had already driven the Confederates into Fort Gaines, 
which the next day was invested by land and sea. Farra- 
gut induced Col. Anderson to come out to the fleet and 
convinced him that resistance was useless and could only 
result in loss of lives, and so, without notice to Gen. Page at 
Fort Morgan, Fort Gaines, was surrendered with all its 
stores. The Pelham Cadets, Mobile's home guard of 
young men, had lately been sent down, and they were 
captured too with the regular garrison. Over 800 men 




THE TENNESSEE AFTER THE BATTLE 

and,^ twenty-eight guns were the fruit of the surrender. 

Fort Powell, guarding Grant's Pass, had been found 
untenable, and Colonel J. M. Williams the night before 
set a fuse and got all his men safely through the deep 
water to Cedar Point before the explosion which blew the 
fort to pieces 

7. Fort Morgan. General Page was much mortified 
at the surrender of Fort Gaines, and had no intention of 
giving up. General Granger landed at Navy Cove with 
an overwhelming force of Federals, and after approaches, 
run gradually closer from day to da}^ by the 22nd Fort 
Morgan was as completely invested by army and navy 
as had been Fort Bowyer. Page had about 500 men 



Battle of Mobile Bay 333 

against 5,000, besides the whole fleet, most of whose vessels 
were now inside the Bay and so not within the range of 
the fort's heavy guns, which faced the Gulf. The discipline 
of the garrison continued perfect, and stood the test of 
an unbroken bombardment, whose thunders were heard 
at Mobile, thirty miles away. Many shells were thrown 
into the fort, the pine walls of the octagon citadel were fired, 
with increasing danger to the magazine, and at last the 
walls were breached in several places. Further defence was 
useless, and, after spending the night destroying everything 
possible. General Page surrendered. The Federals occupied 
the fort and sent the prisoners to New Orleans. Farra- 
gut's fleet now patrolled the Bay, and, except for theObstruc- 
tions,at the mouth ot the river, Mobile was left defenceless 
from the sea. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

THE END OF THE WAR. 

1. The Federal Advance. Admiral Farragut did not 
venture to try to pass the Obstructions at the mouth ot 
the Mobile River as he had those in the Mississippi, and 
Mobile was left unattacked for over a year. The Federals 
held Pascagoula to the southwest and Pensacola to the 
southeast, but attempted no advance far from their fleet. 
After the capture of Fort Morgan, however, Mobile was 
practically bottled up. The Federals devoted their atten- 
tion to Sherman's March to the Sea, which cut ofT the 
Alabama-Tombigbee Basin from the east, and it was only 
in the Spring of 1865 that they proceeded against Mobile 
itself. The plan adopted was to advance from Pensacola 
with the view of reducing the forts on the Tensaw. This 
done, transports could go through the delta to Mobile 
River and to the city itself. 

2. Spanish Fort. Most of the Confederate forces had 
been withdrawn to the East and only five thousand troops 
remained at Blakely on the Tensaw River and at Spanish 
Fort at the mouth of its branch, the Apalachee River. 
The forts could not be approached by water because of 
the torpedoes, and the attack planned by General Canby 
was therefore to throw his forty-five thousand troops from 
the land side on the two river forts, and to this end his 
whole army, including a column under General Steele 
from Pensacola, advanced towards Spanish Fort, command- 
ed by Randall L. Gibson, atterwards senator from Louisiana. 
The actual fort which had come down from Galvez' time 
was the kernel of the Confederate defense, but earthen 
works extended north and south from it for many miles. 
On the right was Fort McDermott, in the centre Red 



The End of the War 335 

Fort, while a swamp protected the left. It was a long 
line tor fifteen hundred men to defend, but they did so suc- 
cessfully for thirteen days. Even in war time men can be 
friendly, and the opposing riflemen in pits far in advance 
ot the main lines came to exchange courtesies, such as 
gifts of tobacco, and even told each other yarns, and all 
without neglecting to keep their superiors posted as to 
the situation. The principal gun in Red Fort was an eight 
inch Columbiad, cast at Selma in 1863 and manned by 
Louisiana artillery men commanded by Slocum. This 
gun did terrific execution, and finished her war record 
by dismantling a w^hole fortification, and, while the sand 
bags were still removed for that shot, Federal gunners 
dismounted her and killed several men at their post by her 
side. The Lady Slocum still sur\'ives, and was tor a long 
time on the green grass in the centre of lower Government 
Street. The fleet out in the Bay endeavored to get within 
range, and three vessels were blown up by torpedoes 
l)ctore it succeeded; but enough torpedoes were picked up 
1)>- boats to make a passable channel, and war vessels were 
then able to fire upon the forts from the rear-. The Fed- 
erals also explored the swamp and finally found a passage 
through it. As this would cut him off from Blakely, 
Gibson abandoned his works and retired up the river. 

3. Blakely. Blakely had once been an important 
city, but had lived to see its trade transferred to Mobile, 
and under its beautiful oaks hardly a hundred people 
lixed in war times. There was deep water at its landing, 
and from there Mobile could be easily approached, and 
therefore it was defended by earthworks far out in the 
piney woods, garrisoned by three thousand men under 
General Liddell, with Cockrell as his second in command. 
It had been attacked by General Steele with thirteen 
thousand , but it succcssfulh' repulsed them. When Spanish 



336 Under Five Flags 

Fort was surrendered, it was reinforced by Gibson's 
little force, but this brought upon it the whole Federal 
army. The Federals gradually advanced their trenches, 
and finally on April 9th — the day on which General Lee 
surrendered in Virginia — the Confederate works were 
stormed and many prisoners taken. Part of the attacking 
force was made up of negroes, and they are said to have 
treated the prisoners with brutality. Nearby there had 
been two forts called Huger and Tracy on the banks of the 
Tensaw River, but they could not be held after the fall of 
Blakely; and so they were evacuated, and the garrisons 
passed over to Mobile. 

4. The Surrender of Mobile. General Maury had 
been by means of telegraph in direction of affairs, but with 
the loss of Blakely and Spanish Fort found him.self in com- 
mand of only five thousand troops, while the Federals 
numbered ten tim^es as many and were in complete control 
of the Bay and rivers. He accordingly on April 11th 
withdrew up the Mobile & Ohio to Meridian and left 
Mobile in charge of the civil authorities. The actual 
approach of the Federals was not from the river delta; 
General Granger and other oflficers came across the Bay in 
boats and landed at South End. After the Confederate 
troops had left there was much uneasiness in the city, as 
it was not known what action the Federals might take. 
Many citizens buried their silver and valuables for protec- 
tion. When it was learned that the army had landed on 
the Bay shore. Mayor Slough and other citizens took 
carriages down the Shell Road on the twelfth of April, 
and, using a sheet as a flag of truce, met the Federals 
and surrendered the city. 

5. Under the Military. It was a sad day when the 
citizens saw men in blue parading the streets, some of them 
negroes, but the best of order was preserved. General 



The End of the War 337 

Granger took possession ot the public buildings, and many 
of his officers and soldiers were quartered in warehouses 
and private residences. Little trouble was experienced 
and after a few days alTairs settled down. Papers pub- 
lished during this time are very small in size and contain 
little news; for everything was under military control. 
Troops were encamped on vacant lands at Government 
and Hallett Streets, at the Barracks on Texas Street 
further south, and at other points in the suburbs, while 
guards with fixed bayonets walked up and down the streets 
in front of public buildings and all places where officers 
resided. The Confederate Capt. Moore captured two 
guards and made his escape, but fighting was ended. 
The Federal boats were at the wharves, troops 
were everywhere, and the cotton which the Confederates 
had left in the warehouses was seized. 

6. Maury's Retreat. After General Maury dismantled 
the works at Mobile he retreated to the north with forty- 
five hundred men, including three field batteries, and on 
the march occurred the last engagement of the war, — a 
cavalry afTair between the Federal advance posts and the 
Confederate rear-guard under Colonel Spence. All armed 
vessels and steamers were taken up the river by Commodore 
Farrand at the same time that Maury retreated and tor- 
pedoes were planted to stop the Federal fleet. This was 
part of the movement which was to concentrate the Con- 
federate forces of the South West at Meridian. 

7. General Dick Taylor. The ranking officer in the 
South West was General Dick Taylor, son ot President 
Zachary Taylor. He had commanded the Trans-Missis- 
sippi department, and after the defeat of General Hood 
at Franklin succeeded him at Tupelo, Mississippi. Just 
as General Canby had been operating from the south. 
General Wilson had been leading a movement southward 



338 Under Five Flags 

trom the Tennessee Valley, and had captured Selma and 
its foundries from General Forrest, — Forrest's first and last 
defeat. The surrender of Lee, and the Convention of 
Johnston and Sherman showed that the end of the war 
was at hand. Members of Congress and several Southern 
governors were with Taylor, and he now determined the 
course of events in the South West. 

8. An Armistice. General E. R. S. Canby was in com- 
mand of the Federals at Mobile, and, carrying out the 
request of Generals Johnston and Sherman, he and Taylor 
arranged a meeting a few miles up the railroad. Canby 
was escorted by a brigade with a military band, accom- 
panied by many officers in full uniform; Taylor and one 
officer came down the road on a hand car propelled by two 
negroes. The two generals greeted each other cordially, 
and, retiring to a house, soon agreed upon a truce, after 
which all the officers partook of a bountiful luncheon 
together, when Taylor heard the popping of champagne 
corks for the first time in years. When the band struck 
up Hail Columbia, Canby ordered it changed to Dixie, 
but, to cement the reunion of the two sides, Taylor insisted 
that Hail Columbia be resumed. 

9. Taylo/s Stirrender. After the capture of President 
Davis, Taylor was notified that the armistice must come 
to an end, as President Johnson, who had succeeded 
upon the death of Lincoln, had disavowed it. Taylor 
and Farrand on the one side met Canby and Admiral 
Thatcher on the other May 8, 1865, at Citronelle, and an 
honorable surrender was arranged. The Confederate 
officers kept their side-arms, mounted men retained their 
horses, which were private property, and all public stores 
and ordnance were turned over to the proper depart- 
ments of the Federal army. Privates were paroled on 
rolls signed by their officers, and Taylor retained control 



The End of the War 339 

of the railways and steamboats in order to transport his 
troops home. On the Tombigbee River east of Meridian 
were thousands of bales of cotton belonging to the Con- 
federacy, which had been guarded and were now turned 
over to the United States treasury agent. Gold of the Bank 
of Tennessee, which Governor Harris had kept intact, was 
with the army and was taken back to the Bank at Nash- 
ville. As Taylor was well acquainted with the country, 
Canby got him to direct the movement of the United States 
troops so that occupation would be effected to the best 
advantage and to the least annoyance of the people. 
They agreed also that Governor Clark of Mississippi and 
Governor Watts of Alabama, who were present, should 
summon their legislatures so as to repeal the ordinance of 
secession and to abolish slavery. Taylor remained at 
Meridian until all arrangements were carried out, and then 
came down to Mobile. Canby took him with his man 
Tom and two horses by boat over to New Orleans, where 
had been Taylor's home, and there he was able to arrange 
a surrender of the Trans-Mississippi department, except 
that some men preferred to retire to Mexico. 

10. The Women and the Flag. The United States flag 
again waved over the whole country. The South had 
fought until it was absolutely exhausted and nowhere 
was there any thought of further resistance. The freeing 
of the slaves, which President Lincoln had decreed as a 
war measure, was accepted as a fact, and was legalized 
by amendment of the state and Federal constitutions. It 
was hard to give up the dream of independence, and it was 
harder for those who had lost friends in battle to be recon- 
ciled to conquest. Men were comp<clled to accept the situa- 
tion, but the Mobile women still refused, and would have 
nothing to do with the Northern officers, many of whom 
were gentlemen in every sense of the word. It sn happened 



340 Under Five Flags 

that on Government Street the miUtary headquarters were 
in the middle house in the block between Hamilton and 
Lawrence, whose curved stairways went up to a gallery of 
the French style, while the naval headquarters were across 
the street in a handsome brick house occupied during the 
War by Admiral Buchanan. In front of each were sentinels 
and the Union Hag floated over the sidewalk; but ladies 
going down town, on shopping or other errands, would 
not pass under it. Instead, when they reached the corner 
from either direction they would pick up their skirts 
and go out into the middle of the street, in sunshine or in 
rain, and, looking neither to the right or left, pass beyond 
the hated emblem. No insult was offered, but Federal 
officers made it perhaps harder than insult by laughing 
at them.. 

11. The Explosion. While General Maury had carried 
away all stores possible, on the surrender of General Dick 
Taylor at Meridian and other commanders in the South 
West, much of every kind, especially ammuniticn, fell into 
the hands of the Federals, and was brought by river and 
rail to Mobile and stored into cotton warehouses. The 
city in this way became one great arsenal. Suddenly 
on May 25th in the afternoon the city was shaken as by an 
earthquake. Warehouses were demolished, residences and 
public buildings injured all over town, and men and animals 
killed by the shock. Men and women fled for safety and 
for some tim.e no one knew what had happened, except 
that those who had looked to the north had seen, as one 
boy recollects seeing, a vast column of fire and smoke 
ascending and branching out on all sides like a huge um- 
brella, surpassing any that ever hung over Vesuvius; 
and it then settled down as a pall upon the town. Mili- 
tary guards were at once placea around the centre ot the 
disturbance. It was found that the ammunition stored 



The End of the War 



341 




GUARD HOUSE 



342 Under Two Flags 

in Pomeroy's Warehouse on Beauregard near Water Street 
had exploded, and with such force that there was no 
trace left of the building,— all that represented the ware- 
house was a great hole in the ground. The killed who 
were not blown to atoms were buried, the wounded hurried 
to hospitals, but it was many days before the extent of 
the damage was found out. Almost a million dollars of 
property had been blown into nothing by the careless 
handling of shells by negro soldiers, who were unloading 
surrendered ammunition brought down the railroad. How 
many soldiers were killed, how much ammunition was 
destroyed, no one ever knew, for no one was left to tell 
how the accident occurred. 
Such was the return of peace. 



PERIOD VIII. 
A MODERN PORT 



A UTHORITIES. 

Documents. Files of the Mobile Register and other 
newspapers; Records of the City of Mobile; Mobile City 
Directories; Reports of the United States Engineers; Annual 
Reports of the Mobile & Ohio Railroad Company. 

Histories. Fleming, War and Reconstruction in Ala- 
bama (1905;) H. A. Herbert, Reconstriiction;F. J. Hamil- 
ton, The Reconstruction Era. 

Miscellaneous. Pamphlets issued by Mobile Board of 
Trade, Chamber of Commerce, Cotton Exchange, etc. 



CHAPTER XLV. 

RECONSTR UCTION. 

1. The OiiHook. With the close of the Civil War the 
Alabama-Tomliigbee Basin entered upon a new epoch, 
one of an entireh' different character from those known 
under the five flags of the past. It was in a sense the 
restoration of the American flag, but that flag now meant 
a different state ot affairs from formerly. Under the 
PVench, British, Spanish and American flags there had 
been the same kind of gro^vth. The whole region was 
agricultural, seeking its market by shipment from Mobile, 
to which the rivers brought the products of the interior, 
and from which ships took them to Europe. The Con- 
federacy had marked a transition period, because of the 
blockaae; but there was no real change in conditions. It 
is true that before the War the Mobile «& Ohio Railroad 
had been built and some other railroads begun, but they 
\¥ere after all in aid of the traffic by rivers. The harbor 
offered difficulties on account of deposits caused by the 
rivers between the city and the mouth of the Bay; but 
competing ports were tar away and lightering freight from 
the city to the lower fleet served all purposes of the time. 

With the close of the W^ar, however, conditions were 
changed. The United States were becoming unified to an 
extent undreamed of earlier, both in politics and in business. 
There were difticulties to be overcome in social lite on 
account of the freeing of millions of slaves, and this was to 
be reflected in the work of the churches; but the most 
serious troubles were connected with the reorganization 
of state and the reorganization of industry, — with politics 
and with business. Mobile had adapted herself to five 
different flags and to changing business conditions in the 



346 Under Five Flags 

past. It was now to be seen whether, with the diminished 
population and resources due to the Civil War, she could 
adjust herself to the new situation. 

This is the study before us. The territory considered 
will be smaller, because we must confine ourselves more 
particularly to Mobile as a port, with only casual glances 
at the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin as a whole; but on the 
other hand, while the field is less in size, the study will 
be more intensive in character. We will take up politics 
first, and afterwards the changes caused by the increase 
of railroads and competition of other ports. 
• 2. State Reconstruction. After the surrender of General 
Dick Taylor the South was under military rule. Presi- 
dent Johnson appointed L. E. Parsons military governor 
of Alabama, and he assembled a convention to amend the 
constitution so as to restore the state "to its constitutional 
relations to the Federal government." At the election 
which followed Robert M. Patton became governor and 
the state ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting 
slavery; but Congress was in opposition to the president 
and refused to recognize the new senators and represen- 
tatives, among the latter C. C. Langdon. Under an Act 
of Congress of 1867, passed over the veto of the president, 
a new constitution was declared adopted giving votes to 
negroes, and the Republican William H, Smith was elected 
governor. 

3. Carpet-Baggers and Scalaivags. Adventurers from 
the North controlled affairs and were known as "Carpet- 
Baggers," from a word coined by Joseph Hodgson of Mont- 
gomery. Times were so much out of joint that some of 
the whites thought it better to join the Republicans and 
try and modify the conditions, but their motives were 
assailed and such men were given the name of "Scalawags." 
The legislature, composed of Carpet-Baggers, Scalawags 



Reconstruction 



347 



and twenty-six negroes, ratified the later amendments, and 
engaged in every kind of corrupt legislation. It was at 
this time that the state credit was loaned to corporations 
which never built the railroads for which the aid was 
granted. There came some improvement when the 
Democratic and Conservative party elected R. B. Lindsay 
governor in 1870, but the Republicans retained control of 
the senate. 

4. Two Legislatures. The white people in 1872 made a 
desperate effort to regain 
full control of the state, 
and for governor nominat- 
ed Thomas H. Herndon, 
of Mobile; but David P. 
Lewis, of the Tennessee 
Valley, was declared elected 
and the vote of the state 
then, as four years before, 
went to Ulysses S. Grant 
for president. A Demo- 
cratic legislature met in the 
state capitol, and was 
recognized by Governor 
Patton, and then the court 
house legislature, composes ' 
of Republicans, was recog- 
nized by Governor Lewis; 
so that for a while there 

were two sets of laws. ''■""^^- "• «eRN»>on 

Much depended upon the attitude of the national govern- 
ment, for garrisons were at several points in the state. 
Peter Hamilton, of Mobile, was sent to Washington by 
the Den^ocrats and made the best terms possible with the 
Federal attorney-general, and finally the two legislatures 




348 



Under Five Flags 



^.. 



met as one. Alexander McKinstry presided over the senate 
and D. C. Anderson, both of Mobile, over the house of 
representatives, so that the influence of Mobile in state 
politics at this time was very great. 

5. The Kelley Riot. Meantime m.uch had happened 
at Mobile. At the close of the War Mayor Slough was 
removed by the military and John Fors^^th appointed in 

his stead. Upon the re- 
establishment ot civil gov- 
ernment, however, Jones 
M. Withers was elected 
m.ayor and acted until May 
1867. 

The Reconstruction leg- 
islation had just been 
passed and Northern agi- 
tators came from time to 
time to influence the 
negroes. One of these was 
Judge W\ D. Kelley of 
Pennsylvania, who ad- 
dressed a crowd, mainly 
of armed negroes, in front 
ot the court house on May 
14. He was using in- 
cendiary language, stating 
that he would be protected 
by the Fifteenth Infantry then at Mobile, when a pistol 
was discharged and a runaway wagon stampeded the 
assembly. Kelley himself left precipitately and took 
refuge in the Battle House, called for the- military and had 
himself guarded. Meantime the negroes went about the 
streets firing pistols and at least one white man was killed. 
Kelley chartered a boat as soon as possible and went 




Reconstruction 



349 



over to Tensaw and took the train for Montp'omery. 
Citizens at Mobile held a meeting and passed resolutions 
proposed by McKinstry regretting the disturbance, and show- 
ing that there was no hostility to Northerners or negroes. 
This riot was commented on all over the country, and 
Gen. Swayne, by Gen. Pope's comimand, removed Mayor 
Withers trom ofifice, appointing Gustavus Korton instead. 

6. Reconstruction a t 
Mobile. In 1869 Caleb 
Price was elected mayor, 
but, although interference 
ceased on the part of the 
military, the charter had 
been amended to permit 
removal by the governor. 
This occurred in 1870, 
when George F. Harring- 
ton was appointed by Gov- 
ernor Lewis. It was during 
this year that occurred the 
worst municipal scandals, 
and the credit of the city, 
like that of the state before 
it, was pledged for rail- 
roads which were never 
built. 

7. The Wharves. Part 

of the corruption of the day was connected with obtaining 
for the city the river front. It will be remembered that 
although Mobile had been F'rcnch and Spanish, and there- 
fore subject to the Civil Law, even the Spaniards had 
granted out the front of the city from Royal Street east 
to the river to different individuals. These had always 
claimed the shore and had from time to time improved it by 
building wharves or bulkheads. 




GUSTAVUS HORTON 



350 Under Five Flags 

The United States had attempted in 1824 to vest the 
city with the ownership ot the bank of the river, but the 
courts decided that the United States had nothing to 
grant. Now after the War, when it was so necessary to 
rebuild the city's commerce, there was much complaint 
of wharf charges, and the city authorities obtained from 
the legislature January 31, 1869, the short but famous 
act which vested in the city the rights of the state. The 
theory was that if the shore was not the United States' 
property, it was that of the state, and should be passed 
on to the city tor the public good. In consequence the 
city threatened suits against Moses Waring and others, 
who had built up and used the river front, but they suc- 
cessfully prevented the attempt by proceedings in the 
Federal court. The suit was finally compromised in 1870 
by the city's buying the wharves from the owners and in 
order to do this it issued three hundred and sixty thousand 
dollars of bonds. In this way the city came into possession 
ot a third of a mile of the river front and was enabled to 
fix wharf charges. 

8. Negroes. Even during the War negro refugees had 
been aided by the Federal government, and what was 
called the Freedmen's Bureau was set up for their relief. 
The object was not merely to help them, but to make them 
useful citizens. As the negroes were now free, their 
old masters had no control and could only hire them by 
contracts supervised by the Freedmen's Bureau. As 
carried on, the Bureau became a political affair and was 
used by adventurers to help themselves. The negroes 
became independent of the Southern churches, and re- 
ceived attention from those at the North. Two branches 
of the Methodist Church, called the African Methodist 
Episcopal and the African Methodist Zion Churches, 
were organized throughout the South, and became strong 



Reconstruction 351 

also at Mobile. The Little Zion was moved to Church 
and Bayou Streets, and all the churches became affi- 
liated with one or the other of these two bodies or with 
the Northern Baptists. The tendency in religion as in 
politics, therefore, was for the race to become completely 
independent. 

9. Social Life. The Civil War had been connected 
with the negro in its origin and results. He had been 
elevated from slavery to citizenship on the political side, 
and on the religious side was now coming to have control 
of his own churches. These two results had been quickly 
reached, for they could be effected by regulation. There 
were two other elements connected with civilization 
whose solution would require more time. The one was 
as to his industrial future. At first the negro abandoned 
work, and sometimes left the country for town. Here he 
all but starved, and conditions did not right themselves 
for some time. The remaining unsettled matter was as 
to family relations. The Abolitionists had always urged 
the equality of the negro and the white race and their 
enthusiasm led them to break down all barriers. They 
preached intermarriage and the negro leader, Fred Douglass, 
married a white woman, and thus set a practical example 
before his race in the South. The white race, however, 
would have none of this, and set their faces against any 
social mingling of whites and blacks. Social equality, 
as it was called, was refused, and no amount of legislation 
or persecution could effect it. Attempts were made by 
Federal laws to compel the opening of hotels, theatres 
and public places to whites and blacks alike, but such 
regulations were all evaded and finally repealed or became 
a dead letter. The whites maintained their own social 
unity and the negroes gradually learned to develop their 
own. 



352 Under Five Flags 

10. Negro Officials. The Carpet-Baggers did not favor 
having negroes in important offices, but permitted them to 
become postmen and hold other subordinate positions. 
Some negroes became poHtical leaders, one of them being- 
Allen Alexander, who is said to have broken an umbrella 
over a white collector of customs in a political difference 
on the Custom House stairs. Another was a black man 
named Alfred, who had been a carriage driver for D. W. 
Goodman, and several of the preachers becam.e leading 
politicians. The mulattoes were specially prominent. 
There was one fam.ous exception to the Republican rule in 
Charles Archie Johnson, a one-legged newspaper vender 
and an ardent Democrat. His beat was Royal Street, 
where he cried out the Register and Times-Democrat with 
great gusto. He was put up to following some of the 
Republicans and making fun of them, in consequence of 
which they attempted to banish him; but without success. 

11. Negro Education. At the close of the War there was 
little difference of opinion as to the education of the negroes. 
The missionaries of the Northern churches desired it, the 
Freedm.en's Bureau took it in hand, and the Southerners, 
both in state and church, thought it would improve the race, 
although the use of the Medical College for that purpose 
was opposed. Schools were opened, attended by old and .. 
young negroes, and in some cases native whites were 
teachers. With the coming of Reconstruction, however, 
the situation was changed. Northern teachers cam.e, full 
of crusading zeal against Southern institutions, and Repub- 
licans used the educational offices to m.ake money. One 
of the changes of Reconstruction was the creation of 

a State Board of Education, of which N. B. Cloud was 
superintendent. He wished to subject the Mobile school 
system to his control, and appointed G. L. Putnam super- 
intendent. Putnam was principal of a school called 



Recoristriiclion 353 

Emerson Institute, which the American Missionary 
Association had started for the negroes in Norman Pinney's 
old school building, "The Blue College," and sought to 
have the Institute obtain part of the school funds; but he 
was not recognized by the School Board. He obtained 
several thousand dollars of the funds by virtue of his 
office and the m.atter was taken into the courts by the School 
Board in 1869. The Supreme Court, through Justice 
Peters, a Republican, decided that the Mobile School 
system had net been changed by legislation, and sustained 
the School Board. The result was that the different 
negro schools had to sustain themselves, but the School 
Board established negro public schools under their own 
control the next year. Colonel Joseph Hodgson became 
state superintendent in 1870 and did much to im.prove 
education, but was in office only two years, and was suc- 
ceeded by a Republican. The State Board of Education 
was abolished by the Constitution of 1875, but the Mobile 
School Board, has continued its useful career until now. 

12. The Courts. No public officials come in closer 
contact with the life of a community than judges, and Mo- 
bile was unfortunate in those w^hom Reconstruction put 
ujion the bench, state and Federal., The most famous 
of these was Richard Busteed, an Irishman, who was once 
a Methodist preacher and afterwards a Federal soldier 
for a short time. His position of district judge tor Alabama 
was nominal except when the Federals were in control of 
the north part of the state, but after the War he took 
the place held up to then by William G. Jones. Busteed 
was a prominent figure in catton and. other cases at Mobile 
and. elsewhere. He decic'ed that the test oath for lawyers 
was unconstitutional, l)ut his ether acts were much criti- 
cized. He w^as arbitrary in ecurt and after the bar had 
suffered a long time impeachment proceedings were brought 



354 



Under Five Flags 



against him by Robert H. Smith. The matter was 
compromised by the resignation of Busteed in 1874, when 
he returned to New York. 

13. The New Militia. As all the active Confederates 
were disfranchised, and Federal soldiers and Republicans 
controlled the machinery of election, it looked as if there 
could be no remedy in political affairs and the old citizens 
must migrate or turn their attention to something else 
than politics. After the surrender no armed organizations 

were permitted to exist, 
but gradually the soldiers 
got together for social pur- 
poses, and the younger 
men called themselves after 
the old military companies. 
The Cadets, Rifles, Light 
Infantry, German Fusi- 
liers, and Artillery came 
into existence again from 
1868, and, as soon as the 
Federal authorities permit- 
ted, were recognized as 
state troops, with regular 
officers. The first Regi- 
ment of Alabama State 
Troops organized w i t h 
J. H. Higley as colonel. 
They were able to do good 
service, tor, as the Federal 
soldiers were confined to the Barracks and were finally 
withdrawn, there was sometimes need for the new military. 
There was an annual encampment at Frascati on the Bay 
shore, and later the Rifles and Lomax Rifles became 
famous for their drills. The Rifles acquired a national 




T. L. WOODRUFF 



Reconslruclinn 355 

reputation by their victories at Nashville and Dubuciue. 
and even by their defeat at Houston. 

14- The National Cemetery. Burials in the Old Grave- 
yard became fewer as it filled up, and what was now 
called Magnolia Cemetery became the favorite buryin;^' 
ground. In the year 186B the city of Mobile donated three 
acres of land in Magnolia for use as a national 
cemetery, and the gift was courteously acknowledged by 
General George H. Thomas on behalf of the government. 
The Federal dead were removed to this place from Blakely 
and other points near Mobile, trees and flowers were 
planted, and a keeper's house erected. In 189 i a strip of 
land was donated by the city which extended the cemetery 
to Virginia Street, and in this divdsion were afterwards 
re-interred the remains ol Jackson's soldiers, who had been 
l)uried near Fort Jackson, — Bienville's old Fort Toulouse. 
The "Confederate Rest" was but a short distance away, 
but there was no government to take care of it. 

15. Memorial Association. During the War the women 
of Mobile had inspired the soldiers as they went forth, 
nursed them when brought back wounded, and cDnsecrated 
their memories when dead. Alter the close of the War, 
therefore, it was not unnatural that the women should form 
an association to care for the graves in the "Confederate 
Rest." Mrs. Ann T. Hunter led in this and the Confed- 
erate Memorial Association was formed. Its work was 
of two kinds. In the first place, the women would gather 
together and make cedar wreaths, and on Memorial Day, 
April 2t), after salute by the military and an appropriate 
address by an orator of the day, they placed the wreaths 
upon all Confederate graves, whether named or marked 
unknown. Many famous men have delivered these ad- 
dresses, and amongst them Dr. Ben M. Palmer. A more 
lasting part of the Association's work was beautifying the 



356 Under Five Flags 

"Confederate Rest." Headstones were set at each grave, 
marked with the soldier's name if known, and an 
appropriate monument surmounted by a statue was erected 
in the centre of the ground. It represents a private 
soldier at parade rest and the sculptor's model was John 
H. Higley. 

16. Mardi Gras. During the worst of the Reconstruc- 
tion days the old feeling which had organized the Cowbel- 
lians came back again. The Strikers and T. D. S., dating 
from before the War, kept up their New Year's parade at 
the sam.e tim^e as the Cowbellians; but the m.emibers were 
getting old, and the younger men preferred to organize 
themselves into new societies and parade at Mardi Gras. 
The Order of Myths came into being in 1867, and the 
Infant Mystics two years later, rivals who by their historical 
or fancy pageants have added much to the pleasure and 
instruction ot the public. The transfer of these turnouts 
to the pleasanter season reacted upon the older societies, 
and these after a joint parade on New Years Eve of 1S81 
ceased to appear. The older in this way handed on the 
torch to the younger and kept up the mystic continuity 
Mobile can boast of being the Mother ot Mystics. 

17. The Ku KIux. The Anglo-Saxons love local self- 
government and their genuis tor politics led them to plan 
to regain control of public affairs indirectly where they could 
not act directly. So a plan was devised to influence the 
negroes by playing on their superstition. It is said to 
have originated with General Forrest in Tennessee, where 
a social circle (Kuklos) called themselves the Ku Klux Klan. 
About New Orleans and Mobile a similar society was 
called the Knights of the White Camelia. The object was 
to keep the negroes away from the polls at elections, and 
the old system of patrol, both in county and town, was 
used to carry out the scheme. At night a party of ghostly 



Reconstruction 



357 



looking riders would go about, visit the negro cabins and 
frighten the family, and warn the men that if they voted 
something dreadful would happen. On Government Street 
a tall white figure would stop an alarmed negro and ask 
him to hold the ghost's skull while he adjusted a back- 
bone, and such practical use of Hallowe'en methods 
kept the blacks away from the polls. Even the efforts 
of the Republican leaders to enroll them in the Loyal 
League could no longer avail. Carpet-Baggers also received 
written notices or saw them in the papers. There is no 
doubt that violence was som-Ctimes used, and congress 



& !8^ R^SlcSwAnaiVi^v. 



-mnrpa mxiMitsxsn m H r »iMa» t ea pj£ 



1 f^>*** ?^- 1 








(At /-fr ^ 







CITY MONEY 



took up the matter in a series of investgations, and passed 
laws under which the Ku Klux were prosecuted and 
finally broken up. 

/<S\ A Political Revolution. Unity of feeling and action 
had nevertheless been secured among the whites. The old 
names of Whig and Democrat had disappeared from use 
and all combined in what was called the Democratic and 
Conservative party, pledged to redeem the state from 
misrule. They almost succeeded in 1872, and the whole 
state was finallv carried bv the Democrats in 1874 tor 



358 Under Five Flags 

George S. Houston as governor. At Mobile, O. J. Semmes, 
son of the admiral, became judge of the city court, Harry 
T. Toulmin judge of the circuit court, and Price Williams, 
Jr., judge of the probate court, and at the city election 
John Reid was elected mayor, although the old mayor, 
C. F. Moulton, managed to hold over by means of liti- 
gation. This was remedied, however, at the next election, 
when Alphonse Hurtel was chosen, and he discharged 
the duties of the office until his death. During this time 
the city tound it necessary to issue paper money in several 
denominations and for a time its fractional currency 
was in good circulation. George G. Duflfee became 
mayor in 1877. Much was remedied in this interval, 
much was found past remedying. Money had been 
squandered and debts had. been assumed for railroads, 
and the load now became heaviest just when Mobile looked 
out en new economic conditions. 



CHAPTER XLVI. 
THE RAILROAD ERA. 

1. The Commercial Outlook. When the War was over 
and the people returned to the pursuits of peace, they 
found that in industry as well as in pDlitics they were 
in a different world from that of 1860. The drift 
to the towns was now marked and the towns themselves 
were different. Not only had the Eastern cities become 
much larger, but the Western towns of Cincinnati, Louis- 
ville, St. Louis and Chicago had become great cities. A 
new place named Birmingham was begun in 1871, and 
its district promised, to grow and make Alabama a unit 
by developing the mineral region, which had so long 
separated the state into two different river basins. Mobile, 
in particular, had to face new conditions. The interior 
was growing more rapidly than the ports, and of the ports 
only those developed which the railroads favored, and they 
did not favor those where bulk had to be broken in order 
to lighter freight down to deep water. There was working 
out a commercial reconstruction as momentous as the 
political reconstruction of the past. As quickness of trans- 
portation is the index to progress, any change must show 
itself first in the railroads. 

2. The Mobile and Ohio. During the Civil War the 
railroads had been operated by the Confederate govern- 
ment, although still owned by the old companies, and at 
the end of the struggle they were in a deplorable contlition. 
Few repairs had been made, and everything was run down. 
The rolling stock, moreover, was captured property in the 
hands of the Federals, and the roadbed, where not torn up, 
was in bad order, and the rails and cross-ties worn out. 
Mobile was especially interested in the Mobile & Ohio 



360 Under Five Flags 

Railroad, and the officers of this company early set to work 
to get system out of chaos. Much of the rolling stock was 
at Nashville and Memphis, but an order was secured from 
President Johnson for its return to the company, and 
gradually Major L. J. Fleming got things in running order, 
and the road regained much of its old business. Debts 
had. been held off by the War, but now the creditors in 
England and in the North began to urge their claims. 
This prevented any great increase of the railroad's business, 
and resulted in the seventies in arrangement by which 
new securities were issued in place of the old ones, and the 
creditors came in control of the railroad itself. 

3. Railroad Aid. What was true of the Mobile & Ohio 
was true of all the Southern railroads, for they were going 
through a period of transformation. The result was not 
merely having new men coming into control, as with the 
Mobile & Ohio, but many of the Southern roads were closed 
out under mortgages and the absolute ownership passed 
into the hands of Northern capitalists. The Civil War 
had brought only disaster to the South, but it had been the 
means of making many a fortune at the North. The rail- 
road system there had been greatly advanced, and, instead 
of short roads, the necessity of moving troops and crops 
had caused the development of great systems, such as the 
Pennsylvania and Erie. The same plan was now introduced 
by capitalists in the South, and with the desire to rebuild 
the country Southerners plunged into railroad building 
in all directions. Laws were passed in Alabama authorizing 
cities and counties to aid new railroads, and the state itself 
gave money to railroads at so m.uch a mile completed. 
The origin of this legislation goes back of the War, but it 
was now carried to extremes. Some good enterprises were 
aided in this way, but many fraudulent ones were started, 
which never built the roads but did enrich the promoters. 



The Railr&ad Era 361 

In order to do its part, the state of Alabama issued bonds 
to the amount of about five milUon dollars, and the city 
of Mobile also became heavily involved for roads built 
or planned to the east, south and northwest, which would 
make Mobile the Gulf terminus for many systems. 

4. Neiv Orleans, Mobile &' Chattanooga Railroad. The 
enterprise which attracted most attention was one to con- 
nect Mobile with New Orleans. Its advocates told how 
much both cities would be benefited, and cotton brought 
to Mobile, while its opponents said that the business at 
Mobile would be taken by the road to the larger port. 
The promoters secured a charter from the state ot Alabama, 
and secretly took possession by force of the river front 
south of Government Street, drove piles and ran a railroad 
where had been slips and wharves east of Commerce 
Street. Railroad shops were built at the foot of Charles- 
tonStreet and city bonds issued for them as a public improve- 
ment. The company made several mortgages and was 
re-organized under the name ot New Orleans, Mobile & 
Texas Railroad Company; in point of tact, however, it 
ncNer built either to Texas or to Chattanooga, and remained 
essentially a railroad from Mobile to New Orleans. It 
was expensive on account of having to bridge many bayous 
and shallow bays, and, althcnigh it developed the coast and 
a large trat^c between the two cities, it was hardly a paying 
venture. One result was that its competition dro\-e the 
boats out of business, and the old Mail Line wharf at the 
toot ot Conti Street tell into deca>'. 

J. The Mobile & Montgomery Railroad. Not long 
before the War a railroad had been built from Montgomery 
to Pensacola, but, as it had to compete with the Alabama 
River business, it was not very flourishing, and after a while 
much of its business was diverted to Mobile by the (ireat 
Northern, which was built from the Tcnsaw River to join 



362 Under Five Flags 

this Montgomery road. William D. Dunn, ot Mobile, was 
one ot the leading spirits in this enterprise. While it was 
planned to build across the delta direct into Mobile and 
terminals were secured about Beauregard Street, the 
bridges were not built until the seventies. Until then 
connection was made with Mobile by steamboat to a point 
above Blakeley, and the Mobile & Montgomery soon 
became an important link in the Mobile railroad system. 

6. Alabama Grand Trunk Railroad. The Mobile & 
Ohio had been originally planned in order to reach the 
cotton of the South and the grain ot the West, but with the 
development of the Mineral Belt of Alabama during the 
War a new ideal appeared for railroads. The improvement 
of the Warrior and Cahaba Rivers sut^ciently to open up 
that country seemed a long way ofT, and during the railroad 
fever Francis B. Clark, who had long been prominent in 
the Mobile & Ohio, directed attention to a plan for a grand 
trunk line from the Mineral Region to the natural seaport 
for coal and iron at Mobile. After agitation through the 
press and otherwise, the city issued bonds to about $100,000. 
A depot was built on Beauregard Street west of the Mobile 
& Ohio depot. The road was surveyed the whole way up 
to Elyton in JetTerson County, in the heart of the Mineral 
Region, but not enough money was raised to build the bridge 
or much of the roadbed beyond the Tombigbee River. 
Daily trains were run from Mobile up to the Bigbee, and 
for a while the enterprise promised well. 

7. The Mobile &' Northwestern Railroad. Among the 
new men at Mobile after the Civil War was Colonel Wil- 
liam D. Mann, and he originated the scheme of a road to 
run northwestwardly towards Little Rock, crossing the Mis- 
sissippi River at Helena. Charter and rights of way were 
secured and the city aided by bonds to the extent of one 
hundred and fifty-one thousand dollars. The roadway 



The Railroad Era 363 

ran out Congress Street, the western part of which as now 
used was opened by the tracks of the company, which were 
laid for some distance beyond Spring Hill. A beginning 
was also made at the Mississippi River end, where more 
of the road was built than about Mobile. 

S. The Panic of 1873. Mobile like other American 
cities had in the past suffered from financial troubles 
originating in the money centres, and now her return to 
the Union was signalized by another panic. The business 
expansion which followed the close of the War had been 
general throughout the country. Railroad building and 
other public enterprises had been overdone, and a reaction 
followed beginning at Philadelphia on Black Friday, 
1873. Banks were affected throughout the whole Union, 
and all enterprises, especially railroads, which depended 
upon obtaining money in New York came to a halt. The 
Mobile & Ohio passed into the hands of its Northern 
bondholders, and the same was true of the Mobile, New 
Orleans & Texas, and the Mobile & Montgomery was 
reorganized with much the same result, and the Grand 
Trunk and Northwestern soon came to an end. It was 
easier and cheaper to ship cotton to New Orleans or an 
Atlantic port than to break bulk and lighter it down 
the Bay to ships lying there in deep water. The inconven- 
ience which had made no difference before Waf became a 
burden now in the face of cheaper rates by railroads to 
other ports. Many business houses failed and there 
began an exodus of young men to New Orleans, Memphis, 
Texas and other places to seek the living which was be- 
coming more and more difficult at home. It was this which 
made the Panic of 1873 and its results different from all 
before, for losing so many young men sapped much of 
the energy ot the city. The yellow fever epidemics of the 
seventies had the same effect. The railroads all but 
annihilated the harbor. 



364 Under Five Flags 

9. Louisville &" Nashville Railroad. The age of short 
railroads had passed, and that of great systems had come. 
In length the Mobile & Ohio remained one of the greatest 
railroads in the South, but its importance was eclipsed by 
other lines. The one that' affected the Mobile territory 
was the Louisville & Nashville, which gradually got control 
of railroads leading southward, including in 1881 the Mobile 
& Montgomery Railroad. It did not make the city its 
terminus, however, for it first leased and then bought the 
Mobile, New Orleans & Texas Railroad, and in this way 
became a through line from Louisville to New Orleans. 
It put the small railroads of which it had control into good 
order, and, as it passed through the Mineral Belt, which 
the Grand Trurtk had aimed at but never reached, it 
became one of the leading systems of the South. This 
railroad ran into Pensacola on the one side and to New 
Orleans on the other, and deemed it to be to its interest 
to develop these two ports rather than Mobile, where it 
held competition with the Mobile & Ohio, and found few 
shipping facilities. 

10. The Steamboats. The river traffic continued 
large, but gradually felt the effect of railroad competition. 
The boats after the War were almost all sternwheelers, as 
more powerful and more easily loaded, and, as the passenger 
traffic shifted to the railroadds, speed was less important. 
Marine disasters occurred, from time to time. Specially 
distressing were the explosion of the Ocean Wave at Point 
Clear on a Sunday excursion in 1871, when over a hundred 
people, some of them children, were lost, and the burning of 
the William H. Gardner on the Tombigbee in 1888 when 
many lives were lost. The spectacular burning of the 
Maggie F. Burke at the city wharves cost no lives. The 
explosion of the James T. Staples at Bladon Springs Landing 
in 1913 had sad and mvsterious features. Such accidents 



The Railroad Era 365 

have been rare, but the growth of the railroads at the ex- 
pense of the steamboats was a continuous fact of the eighties 
and was something to be reckoned with by a city which had 
been built up by ri\er traffic. 

11. The City Charter. For a short while after the close 
of the War business had been prosperous, despite the 
political unrest, but from the time ot the panic the city 
as a corporation felt the stress of financial trouble. Citi- 
zens were unable to pay taxes and as a result interest on 
the railroad and. other public debts was not met and even 
the regular departments of the city government had 
insufficient incom.e. Suits were begun by debtors against 
the city in the United States court, and the northern wing 
of the municipal building was sold under judgment and has 
ever since remained private property. A reorganization was 
made in 1875, but the city could not pay the new interest. 
Conditions were now much the same as after the panic of 
1837, and now as then citizens got together to find a rem.edy. 
The first step was to ha\e the state dissolve the charter of 
the city by an act of February 11, 1879, and place the ad- 
ministration of the more thickly settled part in three com- 
missioners, with the duty to affect a settlement with the 
creditors. These were at first reluctant to accept any 
reduction of their debt, but finally an arrangement was 
made, pro\'iding new bonds for about two and a quarter 
million dollars, and it becam.e a law by action of the legis- 
lature December 8, 1880. The debt was cut almcjst in 
half, and what represented the purchase of the wharves 
secured by a mortgage on the wharves. All the interest 
was payable from special taxes, levied by the commis- 
sioners. Meanwhile by act of the same date the govern- 
ment of the city itself was placed under what was called 
a Police Board, of whom the head was the recorder. To 
this office was elected Richard B. Owen. 



CHAPTER XLVII. 

SEVEN LEAN YEARS {1878-1885.) 

1. Reorganization of Industry. There are social laws 
to which man conforms, although he does not realize it. 
Changes which sometimes bring ruin to individuals, or 
even to a community, are nevertheless working out a 
growth tor society at large, and man has a wonderful 
capacity lor adapting himself to new surroundings. We 
have seen this when the Spaniards came to America and 
gradually softened, when the French became habitans 
and Creoles, when the British absorbed the French and 
the two became one, and when the pioneers in the 
South West became different people from those on the 
Atlantic. W^e now find the same thing among the South- 
erners when the Civil War had destroyed the capital which 
had been saved up by society and the form of labor was 
changed from slaves to freedmen. It was asocial change 
of the first order, and, although made worse by political 
interference, was one which had to work itself out in some 
w'ay unless anarchy was to result. There was on the one 
side an effect produced on the negroes. They had formerly 
worked faithfully, but often only because they were 
forced to do so. Now they thought that they could work 
or not as they pleased, and for a time there was great 
demoralization; but after a while they found that they 
had to work or starve, and they settled down into more 
or less regular habits. A more serious feature was in the 
change from the personal relation of master and slave, 
w'hich was often one of affection, to the business relation 
of employer and employed, which frequently lacked, all 
personal interest. There was an effect also on the white 
people. The slavery system had d.e\eloped a \'ery high 



Seven Lean Years (187S-188o.) 367 

order of man, for America furnishes no higher type of man- 
hood than Washington and Lee; but it created also a class 
t)f poor whites who had little social standing, and manual 
labor had come to be looked on somewhat as a badge of 
inferiority. The new conditions changed all this. All 
whites were now poor and had to begin at the bottom, and 
many, both men and women, had to do work v\-ith hands 
which were never trained to labor. It is not to be won- 
ered, therefore, that conditions for some years after the 
War were pitiful in the extreme. This marked the first 
stage in the economic readjustment after the War. 

2. New Men. Time would bring a new generation to 
the front, but some new men came at once. Each era in 
the history of- Mobile has brought new men, who have 
become a part of its life, and the Civil War was no excep- 
tion. It had brought destruction, but it had also brought 
to the city from the country or from a distance such men as 
William J. Hearin, x'\lbert C. Danner, Julian W. Whiting, 
John L. Rapier, Albert P. Bush, and J. T. Gilmore, and 
lhe\- were needed to fill the vacancies. For a while the 
military element was prominent, for the old soldiers loved 
their old commanders, but gradually new conditions ad- 
vanced men from civil life. Some of the Federal soldiers 
also remained, such as Colonel M. D. Wickersham of 
C.eneral Thomas' staff", and others who became Federal 
officials. Wickersham was successively city treasurer, 
postmaster, and district attorney. Some came to better 
their condition, and others with a real desire to become a 
part of the community and help build it up. The military 
era passed and agriculture, trade and commerce became 
more important. From this time also may be noted the 
gradual disappearance of the French, who had always 
been so marked a feature of local history. No more came 
and those who were in Moljile died or were absorbed by 



368 Under Five Flags 

marriage with American families. Their customs had 
permeated local civilization and were to remain, but within 
two or three decades the French-speaking Mobilian became 
a rarity. On the other hand the number of Germans and 
of German Jews gradually increased and they added a 
valuable element. The population as a whole, however, 
in 1880 showed a decline, for it was only 29,132. 

3. Revival of Business. The system, of slavery had not 
been favorable to manufactures, for the negroes did not 
as a rule becom.e skilled laborers, such as could use machines 
to advantage. It was different with the poor whites, 
but in their way they were as proud as the slaveholders 
and held theniselves alocf on their little farm.s and in the 
mountains. It was thought that conditions were different 
after the War, and the old factories were put in order and 
new ones begun. At Mobile yarn mills, cotton cloth 
factories, furniture factories and other enterprises were 
begun from time to time, but, as this was often with small 
capital and without sulificient knowledge of the l:)usiness, 
they sometimes failed, and this discouraged others. Banks 
and insurance com. panics were also revived or started, 
and did a good business. The Mobile Fire Department 
Insurance Company devised the unique feature of having 
firemen as stockholders, and thus interested, them in saving 
houses, — especially those bearing the sign of the fireman's 
cap, adopted by this company. The Panic of 1873 crip- 
pled many of these enterprises, for, being local, they were 
subject to local conditions. Some, however, were lasting, 
stich as the Stonewall Insurance Company and the Factors 
and Traders Insurance Company. The Fair Associa- 
tion h a d its first fair in 18 7 4 and contributed 
to populaVizing new methods in agriculture and other 
industries. C. C. Langdon was now in the fruit raising 
industry and through this Association and in the press 



Seven Lean Years {1878-1885.) 369 

did much towards teaching how to renew soils wasted by the 
old methods of agriculture. 

A- The Cotton District. Old things were passing away 
with new conditions, but one new element of architecture 
came with the revival of the cotton trade in the sixties. 
This business was connected with the shipping, river and 
marine, and naturally centered at the river front. Brokers 




MOBILE FIRE DEPARTMENT INSURANCE COMPANY SIGN 

and factors had their offices near together for greater con- 
venience, and particularly in the second story of the build- 
ings between Commerce and Front Streets. An iron 
verandah ran along the side facing the river, and light 
bridges spanned the streets north of St. Francis, so that 
cotton men could go from office to office for several blocks 
withotit having to descend to the street. This lasted until 
the destructive fire of 1892. The warehouses and 
presses, however, remained in the north part of town, which 
was rebuilt after the explosion. 



370 



Under Five Flao,^ 



5. The Banks. The National Banking Law passed by 
the United States during the War was applicable to the 
Southern States after they had returned to the Union, and 
the First National Bank, chartered in 1865, attained import- 
ance under James H. Masson as president, and the National 
Commercial Bank followed afterwards. The national 
banks had the right to issue currency, while the others did 
not. The Deposit and Savmgs Bank, chartered 1806, was 
an experiment which sought to issue paper not prohibited 
by law, and it furnished currency for several years. In 
1871 came the Peoples Bank, which bought the site of the 




, -S",.^ ^-^PC i^Jk^^ 

FOOTE'S MONEY 



old Southern Bank and was destined under the management 
of J. W. Whiting to become one of the greatest institutions 
of Alabama. The Bank of Mobile, which had survived 
so many years of prosperity and distress, now bought 
the northwest corner of Royal and St. Francis Streets and 
continued to be the principal bank of the city, while the 
Mechanics Savings Bank had been reorganized as the 
Mobile Savings Bank at a place of business east on St. 
Francis. 



S&en Lean Years {1878-1885.) 371 

6. The Street Raitivays. The t,rowth ot Mobile just 
prior to the War had led to diftercnt plans for transporta- 
tion ot people, and untier an act of legislature ot 1860 the 
Spring Hill Railroad was built to that suburb from Mobile. 
There had for some years already been an omnibus company 
operating a line ot busses from down town out Dauphin 
Way, and it took advantage of the new law and laid tracks 
on Dauphin from Royal to Lafayette, where it built 
stables tor its horses and mules. The War had greatly 
interfered with both these railways, but immediately 
afterwards they were put in orcier, and other railways 
built. In 1866 a street railroad was built down Royal 
Street to the resort named Frascati among the beautiful 
oaks on the Bay, and later a rival road was built down 
Conception Street and Washington Avenue, finally reaching 
another resort known as Arlington on the Bay. During 
the same year the Dauphin Street road had a rival which 
was built on Government from Commerce to Lafayette, 
which led to the improvement of Government. 

7. Revival of the Cotton Business. Some oi the old 
cotton men were dead, and some could not adjust them- 
selves to the new age. William H. Ross & Co., however, 
continued, and such names as Baker, Lawler & Co., Walsh, 
Smith & Co., Allen, West & Co., (afterwards Allen, Bush 
& West), Foster & Gardner, T. S. Fry & Co., Patrick 
Irwin & Co., Sims, Harrison & Co., and John A. Winston 
& Co. were prominent among the factors, who numbered 
soon over two dozen. Besides these, there were brokers 
and buyers, and managers of presses, warehouses and 
pickeries, together with many incidental industries. The 
cotton receipts increased for several years after the war. 
In 1865 there were only about 75,000 bales received from 
all sources, but as soon as business conditions were restored 
the receipts wxre regularly between three and four hundred 



372 Under Five Fags . 

thousand. In 1875 they amounted to 320,822 and in 
1878 reached high water mark at 419,071 bales. Of this 
considerably over half came by rail, the Mobile & Ohio 
bringing twice as much as the Mobile & Montgomery 
Railroad; of the amount coming by river the Bigbee and 
Warrior brought twice as much as the Alabama. These 
proportions, however, varied from year to year. 

8. Decline of the Cotton Business. The cotton men had 
got used to new conditions, and new men w^ere in control 
of affairs. But the conditions changed again and from 
the late seventies the receipts began to fall off, for cotton 
went by railroad to other ports where it could be loaded 
from the cars into the ships. In 1880 there came still 
392,319 bales, but in seven years the receipts went down to 
216,142 bales. The effect was marked. Less cotton 
meant fewer people to handle it, and less profits for those 
who did handle it. The Panic of 1873 had caused great 
distress, and this falling off in cotton was due to permanent 
diversion of the crop elsewhere by rail, and prevented 
Mobile from rallying from the effects of the panic. This 
marked the second and the more serious stage in the 
economic readjustment after the War. Mobile was ceasing 
to be a port. 

9. The Railroad Commission. Mobile had become great 
when swift steamboats superseded ffatboats and dirt 
roads, and w^as now passing through a crisis because of 
the yet swifter transportation by the railroads. The 
elTort of the railroads was to kill competition on the rivers 
by carrying freight at a low price during the seasons when 
the rivers were high enough for the boats, and then 
raising rates during the summer when low water stopped 
the boats. The result w^as that the boat traffic on the 
Alabama and Tombigbee was much affected, and it paid 
planters and merchants to do their business by railroad, 



Seven Lean Years {1878-1885.) 373 

and, as railroads were more interested in other points 
where there was deep water at the wharves, Mobile suffered 
accordingly. Her business men saw the power of these 
corporations, and set to work to improve the waterways 
on the one hand, and on the other to control the railroads. 
The lead in regulation had already been taken by the 
state of Georgia, and now the Alabama legislature in 1881 
passed a law which created a state Railroad Commission, 
whose duty it was to see that charges for freight and paS' 
sengers were fixed according to the distance carried. The 
same regulation was effected as to interstate commerce 
through the Interstate Commerce Commission established 
by Congress in 1887, and much good has been accom- 
plished by it. But as yet the main seat of the trouble 
had not been reached. Mobile's foreign shipping had 
greatly decreased and something more was needed to restore 
it. 

10. Failure of the Bank of Mobile. While a business 
panic may come all at once, the recovery is always slow, 
and may last for many years. The effects of the Panic 
of 1873 were felt by the banks as well as the rest of the 
business world. In the Bank of Mobile other causes were 
added to the business situation, and in 1884 this pioneer 
institution closed *its doors. The failure created con- 
sternation, and caused runs on all the other banks. This 
crisis continued for several days, but at last quiet was 
restored, and the chancery court began winding up the 
affairs of the Bank of Mobile. 

11. Depression. The depression which accompanied the 
decline in cotton affected every line of business, and par- 
ticularly the exports which were so largely made up of 
cotton. In 1873 these exports had been over $12,000,000, 
and this was surpassed in 1876 and 1877, but from this 
time on there was a rapid decline. In 1878 the exports 



374 Under Five Flags 

amounted to $9,000,000 and then fell to something over 
$6,000,000, while in 1882 they had fallen almost to $3,000,- 
000. The value of imports were affected in the same way, 
although with greater variations. They had been $1,000,000 
in 1873 and fluctuated in the neighborhood of this figure 
through 1879, when they fell to half million and by 1882 
were under $400,000. To offset this was only a slight 
increase in the lumber and timber business, and the growth 
of the new industry of vegetable farming. Much land 
was put in vegetables about Mobile and from a few thousand 
dollars the business increased to almost $300,000. This, 
however, was but a small offset to the loss of cotton and 
the whole community suffered in consequence. It was 
commonly said that Mobile had become a way-station 
on the Louisville & Nashville Railroad and that no improve- 
ment was to be expected. All business was depressed, 
property decreased in value, and a spirit of discourage- 
ment seemed to take possession of the community. 



CHAPTER XLVIII. 
THE HARBOR AND THE RIVERS. 

1. Mobile and Deep Water. Mobile is a port and as 
such dependent upon the interior and on foreign com- 
merce. It had not been a manufacturing centre, and 
rehed upon the river traffic, afterwards re-inforced by rail- 
roads, to bring the articles which it shipped abroad. The 
decline of Mobile had been due to the fact that her magni- 
ficent river system was shut off from the harbor by several 
bars formed by deposits from the rivers. Before the War 
and immediately after this had been overcome by lightering 
cargoes from the city down to deep water, but when rail- 
roads were built to the north and to the southwest it was 
found cheaper in the Cotton Belt to ship direct to the 
mills in the East or through to deeper water at NewOrleans. 
The result was that Mobile practically ceased to be a port, 
and this was the cause of stagnation of business and 
emigration of her young men. The nature of the trade 
with the interior was now different also. Before the War 
the wholesale business was small, as the planters or their 
factors bought their supplies in Mobile at retail. The 
growth of the interior towns now changed this, and made it 
necessary for Mobile stores to become wholesale houses and 
jobbers. This re-adjustment was made, but the question 
of deep water was less easily solved. 

2. The Jetties. It was characteristic, that, while 
many other places acted on the principle of "the old flag 
and a big appropriation," Mobile began the work of 
making her harbor adequate in the same way in which 
she built her first great railroad. In 1867 she secured 
the passage of an act of the legislature authorizing the 
county to issue bonds to the amount of a million dollars, 



376 Under Five Flags 

to be expended by a Harbor Board for the improvement 
of the Bay and harbor. The water over Choctaw Point 
Bar had shoaled to about seven feet, and there was a great 
deal of discussion whether a channel should be dug or 
the current of the river could be confined so as to scour out 
its own channel through the main bars off Choctaw Point 
and Dog River. The scouring plan was adopted, the pass 
between Blakely and Pinto Islands closed, and jetties 
were placed at the south end of Pinto, at Frascati, at what 
is now Monroe Park, and at Arlington. This work was 
done by General Braxton Bragg as engineer, and about 
two hundred thousand dollars expended; but the results 
were not satisfactory and in 1872 the act was repealed. 

3. The Board of Trade. The Mobile Board of Trade 
had been organized in 1868 with Col. Woodruff as presi- 
dent. From the time that business began to decline in 
the seventies this organization was wide awake to the 
situation. There were two committees in particular which 
studied affairs and sought to remedy them. One was that 
on harbor improvement, of which Thomas A. Hamilton 
was chairman, and the other on water routes, of which 
Col. Joseph Hodgson was chairman, and on which A. C. 
Danner acted, and to such men Mobile owes her recovery 
from what promised to be a permanent decay. The Board 
of Trade was at that time on St. Michael Street east of 
Royal, and there were held the consultations which led to 
sending delegations to congress to advocate not only 
cutting through the Choctaw Point and Dog River bars, 
but the digging of a channel from the deep water of the 
lower Bay to the wharves of the city. The annual reports 
of the Board of Trade were devoted largely to this subject, 
as well as to securing factories for Mobile. The Board 
of Trade was reorganized in 1884 as the Chamber of Com- 
merce, which continued its good work; but the beginning 



I 



The Harbor and the Rivers 377 

of the harbor improvement was due to the committees of 
the old organization. 

4. The First Project for Digging a Channel. The work 
was beyond the ability of one city and resort was had to the 
Federal government. The matter was pressed upon con- 
gress and a beginning was made while Reconstruction 
congressman like F. G. Bromberg (representative until 
1875) could act in harmony with the Republican majority. 
In 1870 an appropriation was secured of fifty thousand 
dollars, and a survey made. Work began the next year on 
the plan of digging a channel thirteen feet deep and two 
hundred feet wide from the city to deep water, and with 
an annual appropriation, never exceeding one hundred 
thousand dollars, this first project was completed in 1876. 
The results were stisfactory, and, as the bottom of the Bay 
was found to be a blue clay, there was little difficulty in 
maintaining the thirteen foot depth. 

The improvement of commerce was quick and marked. 
Ships drawing thirteen feet now came easily to the city 
wharves. At first they were only a few dozen, but in a 
short time they exceeded a hundred and by 1883 were over 
two hundred in number. Many were sailing vessels, 
but steamships also came in increasing proportion. They 
carried away the cotton, timber and lumber, and brought 
foreign imports; but the importing side was not at first 
well developed, for many vessels came in ballst. 

5. Second Channel Project. There soon cam.e the neces- 
sity, therefore, for a deeper channel, and in 1878, while 
James Taylor Jones of Demopolis was congressman, a 
survey was made to see what could be done. It was found 
by examination of the bottom of the Bay that a depth of 
twenty-one feet was possible; but a plan for seventeen 
feet was actually adopted, and for this congress made 
appropriations, averaging one hundred thousand dollars 



378 Under Five Flags 

annually, until the channel was cut through the two bars. 
The work was then perfected by deepening to seventeen 
feet the whole channel throughout its length of about 
twenty-six miles. 

6. Later Projects. The Cotton Exchange as well as the 
Chamber of Commerce interested themselves in this under- 
taking, so important to the whole community, and a 
Joint Committee of the two commercial bodies was formed, 
which worked with the Mobile congressman. In this way 
in 1888 the further project was adopted of deepening the 
channel to twenty-three feet and giving it a width of two 
hundred and eighty feet at the top, and soon also a plan 
for extending the work up the Mobile River to the mouth 
of Chickasabogue was adopted, through the influence of 
R. H. Clarke, congressman from Mobile from 1889. These 
undertakings were placed under the continuous contract 
plan, and have been completed. The total expense has 
been about three million and a half dollars. 

7. The Existing Channel. There is no limit to the 
possibilities of the Mobile channel except the depth of 
the water in the river at the one end and the depth of the 
outer bar at the other end. Before one project has been 
completed another has been adopted, and this will con- 
tinue and Mobile keep abreast of any other port. The 
last project was for 27 feet and was adopted in the year 
1910 and is now practically completed, with the result 
that vessels drawing twenty-seven feet can come up to the 
city wharves. There has also been completed a plan for cut- 
ting the channel straight at the mouth of the river and thus 
getting rid of an elbow which greatly impeded navigation. 
The channel over the outer bar has been gradually deepening 
from natural causes ever since the storm of 1717 closed 
the pass by Dauphine Island, and can be deepened artifi- 
cially as may be desired. The depth at the wharves has 



I 



The Harbor and the Rivers 379 

been dredged out to the channel of the river, and a basin 
of about eight hundred by six hundred feet has been 
dredged below the mouth of Chickasabogue. The general 
result, therefore, is that there is a complete channel from 
the outer bar to Chickasabogue of twenty-seven feet 
depth. 

S. The Rivers. Thoughtful men realized that the 
rivers must be improved at the same time with the harbor. 
The state was interested and conventions were held at 
different times to consider the question, among them 
one at Blount Springs in the year 1877 and one at Tusca- 
loosa in 1885; and plans were formed as to the Alabama, 
Tombigbee, and other rivers which had never been im- 
proved by either state or gneeral government. The bitter 
experience in aiding railroads led to the provision in the 
Constitution of 1875 forbidding the state to undertake 
what was called internal improvements. It was left, 
therefore, for the United States government to do what- 
ever was necessary. The Alabama-Tombigbee system is 
composed of eleven rivers, affording in all, if improved, 
over two thousand miles of navigable waters, draining 
basins of forty thousand miles in extent inhabited by more 
than a million people. Alabama, Mississippi and Georgia 
were concerned, and congress was induced to survey 
the rivers and finally to appropriate money for their 
improvement. It was conceded that little or nothing 
could be done with the rivers above Wetumpka on account 
of the hard rock through which they run, but not only 
did the lower rivers flow through a rich agricultural country, 
but vast quantities of coal and iron were in the Cahaba 
and Warrior valleys. These were already partly opened 
by means of railroads, and if the rivers could be improved 
the products could be brought to the seaboard at Mobile. 
About 1875 appropriations were begun for the larger 



380 Under Five Flags 

rivers. The first work was in removing snags, and after- 
wards permanent works were undertaken, and provision 
made for canalizing the rivers and providing slack water 
navigation. Locks on the Warrior have been in course 
of construction for a number of years, and when com- 
pleted coal and iron can be brought from the vicinity of 
Birmingham to Mobile. In the course of ten years about 
half a million dollars was secured for these purposes, 
including a hundred thousand dollars for the Alabama, 
Tombigbee and the Warrior, respectively. There was as 
much more for the Upper Coosa, but this aided Rome, 
The Birmingham canal will come in time. 

S. Steamship Lines. Mobilians had established a 
steamship line with New York before the War, and as 
business improved something was done in this direction 
again. And it was needed, for in the eighties and even later 
the cotton shipped by sea was only forty odd thousand 
bales. When the thirteen foot channel was assured a 
company was organized that built on the Clyde a steamship 
called the Mobile. She was received at Mobile with 
enthusiasm and opened a line plying regularly to Liverpool 
under the British flag. Although she ran only one or two 
seasons, and was not large enough to be profitable, the 
Mobile began the regular export of cotton and import of 
other things and led the way to a large business. Trans- 
portation was so much in the hands of railroads that ship- 
ping could best get its freight by means of them. On 
the other hand a railroad like the Mobile & Ohio, reaching 
deep water, needed steamship transportation to foreign 
markets, and so with the increasing depth of the harbor 
the Mobile & Ohio arranged for larger and regular shipping 
facilities. From the middle eighties dates a steamship 
line to New York and also one to Liverpool, carrying 
cotton, and gradually other companies have established 



The Harbor and the Rivers 381 

lines from Mobile to different points. In this way have 
come the Munson and Mallory Steamship Lines to New 
York, the United Fruit Company to Central America, and 
others to the West Indies and to South America. 

9. Results. Each improvement of the river and each 
deepening of the channel increased the commerce of Mobile. 
The lighterage companies went out of business, but the 
steamboats handled more trafhc both up and down the 
Alabama-Tombigbee Basin, and vessels which formerly 
had to take cargo in the lower Bay now came up to the 
city. Not only were cargoes more easily handled, but, as 
steamships were now used, ships came oftener, and more 
money was spent in town. There had been marine ways 
and dry docks on one bank of the river or the other for 
many years, and more business was brought to them. 
The south part of the town, whose river front had so long 
been valueless, came into demand and was built up. The 
ship chandlery business grew, banking and insurance 
increased, and all branches of business felt the improvement 
which resulted from deepening the waterways to and from 
Mobile. Grant's Pass has also been improved and aids 
commerce with the coast. Water transportation 
supplied the needed competition with the railroads, and 
railway rates were lowered; so that Mobile gradually won 
back its place as a distributing point for the Alabama- 
Tombigbee Basin. Much of what had been accomplished 
in one epoch by building the Mobile & Ohio was now accom- 
plished in another way by improving the waterways 
which centred at Mobile. Mobile ceased to decline and 
began the improvement which has ever since continued. 
The ship channel made Mobile a port again. 



CHAPTER XLIX. 
GROWTH. 

1. Cotton. The main reliance of Mobile during its 
American history had been cotton. Something had been 
attempted in the way of factories, but for a long time the 
principal business was still the shipment of cotton in com- 
pressed bales. The quantity coming to Mobile was much 
lessened, since the railroad systems, reaching to the East 
and owned there, found it to their interest to transport 
cotton direct to the New England mills without letting 
it come to tide-water. This was the culmination of the 
movement which had begun when Charleston and Savannah 
built their railroads westwardly before the War and 
tapped the Alabama-Tombigbee Basin at Montgomery. 
It was clear, therefore, either the cotton trade must be 
regained or something else developed to take its place. 

2. Lumber. If the cotton business declined with the 
growth of the railroads the contrary was true of lumber; 
for not only did the railways give new territory, but 
branches and logging roads to the rivers gradually opened 
up the forests on every hand. There had always been 
sawmills on or near the country watercourses, and even 
before the War the mills of William .Otis at the toot of 
Madison Street were among the institutions of the city. 
Otis and others marked the first stage in the history of 
the lumber business at Mobile, but they did little foreign 
business and none to Europe. Pensacola had taken the 
lead, but as its tributary forests were thinned out atten- 
tion was more and more directed to the Alabama-Tombig- 
bee Basin. 

Albert C. Danner had come to Mobile a few years after 
the War and in the seventies began the export of lumber 



Growth 383 

and timber to Europe. The business grew and its possibi- 
lities were now learned for the first time. In the early 
seventies the total foreign export of lumber and timber was 
about ten million cubic feet, and in 1877 it was over thirteen 
millions. By 1881 the total shipment of lumber alone 
was eighteen million cubic feet, and the year following 
this was almost doubled. Banner's company failed in 
1884 at the same time with the Bank of Mobile, but other 
men had entered into the business and in the late eighties 
lumber mills lined the river from Chickasabogue almost 
to Choctaw Point. One of the largest was the Sullivan 
Timber Company under John W. Black, which came here 
after the death of the elder Sullivan at Pensacola. 

In value the high-water mark of lumber export was 
million and a half dollars in 1910. 

3. Timber. Something had been done in timber before 
the War. Murrell and Eslava shipped spars to the French 
government, and after the War Danner and his associates 
handled timber as well as lumber. In 1881 the timber 
shipments amounted to one and a quarter million cubic 
feet, which was about equal to the lumber trade. 

A new elefuent in the business came when Guy, Bevan 
& Company opened an office at the beginning of the eighties. 
Their agents were Canadians, for, on account of the closing 
of their ports in winter, they began to establish agencies in 
the South. Among the early ones was H. G. G. Donald and 
in 1884 came James Hunter, who had been their agent at 
Darien, Georgia. ^.S. Benn was early connected with 
this firm and he and the Hunters built up a large business 
in hewn timber. In those days shipments were by sailing 
vessels, loaded through portholes in the bow, but in 1886 
Donald loaded the Sculptor, the first steamer carrying 
a full cargo of sawn pitchpine timber for Liverpool. In 



384 Under Five Flags 

value the high-water mark of timber exports have been 
about two milHon and a half dollars in 1907, and almost 
four million dollars of hewn timber in 1893. Improve- 
ment in the naval stores business was also marked at an 
early date. 

4- The Turning Point. A disaster can be dated, but 
it is difficult to fix the exact time for an upward movement 
in commerce. Nevertheless, it is plain, that, despite the 
failure of the Bank of Mobile and the weakness of other 
institutions which followed, from 1885 a different spirit 
took possession of the business men of Mobile. The 
country as a whole had recovered from the Panic of 1873 
and Mobile began to feel the effects of regulation of the 
railroads and the deepening of the harbor and rivers. In 
1883 was erected the first large private dwelling for a decade, 
the Government Street home of F. J. McCoy, who was in 
the naval stores business. The Cotton Exchange was 
built shortly afterwards and marked the return of pros- 
perity, which was soon evidenced in handsome stores in 
both the retail and wholesale districts. The population 
took an upward turn and for 1890 the census gave Mobile 
31,076 people. 

5. The Mobile &" Ohio. No great railroad genius came 
to the front during these times of economic change to make 
the Mobile & Ohio the great trunk line to the West its build- 
ers had planned ; nevertheless, much was accomplish- 
ed. William Butler Duncan of New York had been in 
control since the reorganization in 1876 and worked 
untiringly to put the finances of the company in good 
order. Under able managers the road was improved, and, 
in the eighties, a line leased from Cairo, 111., north to St. 
Louis, so that the road was a through line from St. Louis 
to the Gulf at Mobile. E. L. Russell as attorney aided 
Mr. Duncan a great deal in developing the road. The 



Growth 385 

branches to Aberdeen and Columbus were maintained, but 
the Gainesville branch, so useful during the War, and that 
to Starkville were discontinued. A railroad was built 
to Coden on the Sound, and the Columbus branch was 
extended through the Mineral Belt and Tuscaloosa over 
to Montgomery. The Mobile & Ohio finally became a 
part of the Southern Railway and acquired even better 
connections. 

6. The Mobile and West Alabama Railroad. The new 
spirit was reflected in the organization in 1886 of the Mobile 
and West Alabama Railway by Mobilians. The old 
Grand Trunk plan of bringing coal to Mobile by rail was 
revived, although it was perhaps too late for the road to 
be a trunk system as originally proposed. The rights 
of the Grand Trunk Company were bought, money secured 
by issuing bonds, a bridge built at Jackson, and the road 
pushed on northward as the Mobile and Birmingham Rail- 
road. It did not reach Birmingham, for it stopped at 
Uniontown, but this gave it connection with Selma and 
both the East and the West, and it became a factor in 
Mobile's history. It was the more striking, because not 
speculative or political, like the Reconstruction railroads, 
and it did not stand alone. It, too, ultimately became a 
link in the Southern Railway system. 

7. The Kansas City Railroad. Somewhat as M. J. D. 
Baldwin had preached a railroad to the Mississippi until 
the Mobile & Ohio was built, Chancellor Hurieosco Austill 
urged a revival of the old Alobile and Northwestern 
scheme until business men were interested, subscriptions 
made for survey, and money obtained to begin the road. 
Capital was secured by Colonel Frank B. Merrill and the 
railroad was built towards Hattiesburg, and has ever 
since been ad\ancing further. The terminus sought has 
be;n changed so that the road no longer aims for Kansas 



386 Under Five Flags 

City, but runs through Mississippi west of the Mobile 
& Ohio. Judge Austill did not reap the benefit of his plan, 
but should be honored as the father of the enterprise, and 
also as originating the road to Dauphine Island to take the 
place of the old Cedar Point Railroad. 

8. A New Charter. The people of Mobile began to find 
the Port law too narrow. Some attempts were made to 
amend the Port act, a*nd it was finally determined to restore 
the name of "city." Accordingly on December 10, 1886, 
the legislature passed an act providing for the City of 
Mobile, restoring the mayor, and creating a general coun- 
cil, composed of aldermen and councilmen, but leaving 
the city limits the same. This act was amended several 
times, especially in 1897, and ten years later changed so as 
to restore the boundaries of the old city. 

9. Public Improvements. Richard B. Owen had been 
recorder since the Port was created, and at the election 
of 1887 ran for mayor. He was opposed by a young 
lawyer, Joseph C. Rich, who had been active in the city 
board, and after an exciting election Mr. Rich was success- 
ful. His administration of six years marked a time of 
great public improvement. Heretofore roadways of the 
streets had not been paved except with shells, and this 
was now remedied so far as the city powers allowed. One 
im.portant act of the Rich administration was abolishing 
the old volunteer fire department, which had existed in 
one form or other since 1819. A dispute with the depart- 
ment as to appropriations led to the establishment of an 
efficient paid fire department in 1888, using the newly 
established Bienville Water Supply Company system. Most 
of the engine houses were already owned by the city, and 
new engines were installed. A second question was connect- 
ed with water. Serious litigation occurred between the 
city and the Bienville Company as to water rates, and the 



Growth 387 

final result was the purchase of the Bienville plant by the 
city, which had already bought the Stein works. In this way 
the city secured a fire department and water supply of its own, 

10. The Banana Trade. A new element of foreign 
commerce was now added. It is an old proverb that the 
luxuries of one generation become the necessity of the next, 
and we find this true in connection with bananas. In 
order to secure some of the fruit business from Central 
America the Chamber of Commerce offered a bonus of 
$1,500 for the company that should operate steamers for a 
year, and this attracted H. L. McConnell to Mobile. 
The first ship bringing bananas was the steamer Sala, which 
came in 1893 consigned to the Mobile Fruit & Trading 
Company, and marked the beginning of the Mobile fruit 
trade on a large sclae. Four years later the Snyder Banana 
Company increased the business until it attracted the atten- 
tion of the United Fruit Company, whose headquarters 
were at Boston. A plan of loading specially constructed 
cars and rushing them on fast schedules to St. Louis, Chica- 
go, and even as far west as the Pacific developed into 
a system from 1898, when the United Fruit Company 

, bought out the Snyder Company and made Mobile one 
' of its ports. The steamships Morgan and Gaines, owned 
by Mobilians and run in this trade under the Norwegian 
flag, were continued in the truit business, and most of 
the shipping continued to be Norwegian. Others have 
gone into the business and there have been changes from 
time to time and the United Fruit, Hubbard-Zemurry, 
and Orr and Laubenheimer import through Mobile between 
four and five million bunches of bananas a season. This 
requires steamships specially constructed for the trade 
and employs many men. 

11. Trade with the West Indies. From the earliest 
time Mobile has carried on trade with the countries to the 



388 Under Five Flags 

south and no port was more interested in the Spanish War 
over Cuba in 1898. A Mobilian, Hannis Taylor, had 
been minister to Spain during the stirring time leading up 
to this conflict. There was not only a large encampment 
of troops near Three Mile Creek, but the Mobile Rifles 
and other companies went into the war. A Mobile vessel 
was the first to enter Havana after peace returned and the 
trade of this port with Cuba became second to New 
York. Only less important has been the trade with the 
other West India Islands, particularly Hayti and the 
French possessions, for commercially American Mobile 
became more closely connected with these than in the days 
when it was French also. The business covers export of 
timber, dry goods, and food supplies of all kinds, and 
import of hard wood and other products of the islands. 

12. Set-Backs. The improvement in the last decade 
of the 19th century was so marked that some things which 
previously retarded the city's growth have not during this 
period had that effect. The yellow fever epidemic of the 
seventies, particularly 1873 and 1877, demoralized busi- 
ness and made people flee for the time being, but later 
epidemics proved milder. The last was in 1897 and pro- 
duced little effect, except that the quarantines were more 
disastrous to business than the fever was to lives. A 
Quarantine Convention was held at Mobile in 1888 and not 
long afterwards the cause of the yellow fever was dis- 
covered, and the disease disappeared as well as all fear of it. 

Conflagrations such as one in 1890, have been kept 
within control, and financial panics have ceased to disturb 
to the same extent as formerly. There was one in 1893 
and another in 1907, which affected business, but the 
effect has been temporary, and the growth of the Mobile 
territory has not been seriously retarded. The backsets 
have been temporary, while the growth has been per- 
manent. 



CHAPTER L. 

A NEW CENTURY. 

1. Bicentenaries. With the turn of the century 
came several anniversaries of interest to Mobilians. 
In 1898 there was celebrated at St. Stephens the centennial 
of the Spanish Evacuation, attended by many people of 
Mobile as well as from the neighboring country, and in 
1902 came the two hundredth anniversary of the founding 
of Bienville's city at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff. A monu- 
ment was unveiled there and a tablet placed on the court 




BICENTENNIAL MEDALS 

house at Mobile with appropriate ceremonies. When the 
year 1911 brought around the two hundredth anniversary 
of the removal of Mobile to the present site, it was cele- 
brated by striking a medal and by marking the corners 
of the French town, around which a great civil, military 
and naval procession moved to the city hall, on which a 
suitable bronze tablet was placed as marking the site of 
Bienville's New Fort Louis. For with all their interest 
in the present and hope in the future Mobilians are proud 
of the city's past and honor its founders. 



390 Under Five Flags 

2. Commission Government. The four elements of gov- 
ernment, family, church and industry make up the life of a 
community, and Mobilehasas to the first worked out many 
problems under a mayor and two governing boards. Under 
these it has secured adequate water supply, paving and 
sewers, supplied by the city, and electric lighting secured 
by contract. Not only did Mobile adjust her government 
to her economic needs, as in 1843 and 1879, but even in 
improvement of the city government she has kept abreast 
of modern political thought. With the growth of American 
cities, the sentiment became quite general that their 
government should not be left to political parties. Experi- 
ments had been made in Des Moines, Galveston and else- 
where looking to having a government by a few men 
called commissioners instead of by two large boards, 
and an act was adopted by the legislature of Alabama in 
1911 allowing Mobile to pass upon the question. The 
plan, after an active campaign, was adopted and the 
simplified form of government has given general satisfaction. 

3. SoqialLife. The pleasant social life for which Mobile 
has been famous is due in large part to the blood and to 
the customs of the old French. The incoming Americans 
have been adopted into this social world and have scarcely 
changed it. Her clubs and societies make up an essential part 
of Mobile. Home life has been varied only in one respect, 
the growing tendency towards suburban life. This is 
due to the arrival from the West ot several men who have 
introduced new methods in the real estate business, among 
them C. C. Mechem and J. Howard Wilson. The former 
did for country lands what had been done before the War 
for Spanish tracts in the city. He bought up large tracts 
and subdivided them for home seekers in the suburbs and 
in other parts of Mobile and Baldwin Countiiss. Wilson 
became interested in street railwavs and in 1891 ran an 



A New Century 391 

electric line down Marine Street, which was so successful 
that he was able after a while to combine with it the City 
Railroad property, recently electrified, and to extend 
railway systems in various directions. This led not only 
to the building of new residences, but enabled families 
to live further from the business centre. Such districts 
as Oakdale, Government Street Loop, Ashland Place, 
Flo-Claire, and m.any additions and subdivisions have 
in this way taken the population further to the west and 
south. The result is that Mobile occupies much more 
space than in the past, and many of its most beautiful 
residences are in the suburbs. The population all told 
in 1900 was 38,469, of whom over twenty-one thousand were 
white. The number in 1912 is estimated at 00,000 people. 
5. Literature. The improvement in business meant 
improvement in all lines of civil life, and as a part of it 
should be mentioned literature. Father Ryan came to 
St. Mary's shortly after the War and much of his religious 
poetry date from this time, although his "Conquered Ban- 
ner" was published in a newspaper under his nom-de- 
plume, Moina, before he came to Mobile. Since that 
time Augusta Evans Wilson had written some of her best 
known books, among them "Vashti," "At the Mercy of 
Tiberius," and not long before her death "The Speckled 
Bird." Mrs. Elizabeth W. Bellamy wrote "Seven Oaks," 
"Old Man Gilbert" and other charming Southern novels, 
and amongst other distinguished Mobile authoresses may 
be named Margaret Henry Ruffin, Mary McNeill Fenolosa, 
and also Amelie Rives, formerly of Mobile. T. C. De- 
Leon has written many books, mainly about the Civil 
War, of which the best known is "Four Years in Rebel 
Capitals," and has conducted newspapers at different 
times. Hannis Taylor 1889 published the first volume 
of his "History of the British Constitution," of which the 



392 Ufider Five Flags 

second volume appeared later, and in 1901 came his 
"International Public Law." In 1897 appeared "Colonial 
Mobile" by P- J- Hamilton, a study of the early history of 
this part of the country, and since he has published "Coloni- 
zation of the South" and the "Reconstruction Period." 
Mobile literature, therefore, has added to poetry and the 
novel the other departments of history and law. 

6. The Past. The French time saw the founding of the 
city up the river and then the removal to the present site, 
and has left lasting traces in the blood and customs of the 
people. The British period lasted but a few years and was 
little more than a promise of what would be accomplished 
under the Americans. The Spanish rule was longer, but 
the Spaniards were few in number, and their lasting 
memorial is in our land titles. It was with the 
coming of the Americans in 1813 that the forward move- 
ment of Mobile began, and this attained its height in the 
thirties and fifties, when a little town of 20,000 was the 
second largest cotton port in the world. The Confederate 
period was one of heroism and suffering, and this prepared 
the survivors to work out a greater future. Up to the Civil 
War the rivers had been the commercial arteries of the 
state and they led to the sea at Mobile; with the close of the 
War railroads became dominant factors, and the building 
of the modern city had to be done over again. The earlier 
epochs are full of interest and romance for the whole 
Alabama-Tombigbee Basin; the last, in which we live, 
presents a study of city growth. The field is more limited, 
for the river basin has begun to have new cities, looking in 
other directions than towards the sea. It is a problem 
of intensive rather than extensive growth, and yet, as city 
life is now becoming the principal feature of modern civiliza- 
tion, the study of Mobile since the War has an interest all 
its own. 



A New Century 393 

11. The Future. The close of the Civil War, therefore, 
had left the South face to face with new conditions in 
politics, religion, social afTairs and industry. Mobile 
shared all these difftculties, and had, moreover, some special 
to herself. The rule by the ignorant and by aliens in 
Reconstruction days was changed into local self-govern- 
ment by 1874, and most of the other evils were gradually 
adjusted; but economic conditions were harder to settle. 
Immediately after the War there was a deceptive show of 
prosperity, due to the beginning again of cotton receipts 
and shipments; but railroad construction soon changed 
all this and brought a period of great depression. Mobile 
all but ceased to be a port. It is to the credit of Mobile 
that she undertook to meet these conditions by making 
herself a port again. She first tried her own resources 
and afterwards worked on congress until a channel was 
surveyed and gradually dug. Prosperity returned, and 
there is no limit to the possible improvement. 

Her main reliance in former years was cotton, and this 
must ever remain important. Its future increase, however, 
will be slow; unless there is some change in methods of 
production, it may remain almost stationary. Lumber 
and timber in the past twenty years have been of increasing 
importance, but this source also may be temporary, for so 
far no means have been discovered of reforesting the pine 
woods. Ncnv railroads, such as the Tombigbee Valley and 
improved surface roads will develop all the tributary 
country; for quic'.:er transportation \vill be in the future 
as it has been in the past, the test and means of growth. 

But these are not the only resources of Mobile. With 
the improvement of the rivers, coal and iron will be brought 
here to an increasing extent. This will not only be a new 
source of commerce, but will develop manufactures. Wood 
and cotton factories and iron works are already important 



394 Under Five Flags 

and will make up a large part of Mobile's future, for as one 
basis of industry lessens the genius of her people always 
supplies another. 

It is as a port that Mobile will be great in the future as 
she has been in the past. Even if her immediate trade 
territory should be gradually lessened, she can acquire 
another further off. Mobile can in this way grow by be- 
coming the chief port of the West, as was planned by Bien- 
ville once and by the founders of the Mobile & Ohio Rail- 
road later, and as yet only partially realized; and, looking 
abroad, the development of the countries about the Gulf 
of Mexico and the opening of more distant fields by the 
Panama Canal promise a future greater than the past. 



APPENDIX 

I— GOVERNORS. 

Mississippi Territory 

1798— Wi nth rop Sargent. 
1801— Wm. C. C. Claiborne. 
1805— Robert Williams. 
1809— David Holmes. 

Alabama Territory. 

1817— William W. Bibb. 

State of Alabama. 

1819— William W. Bibb, (Autauga County.) 
1820-1821— Thomas Bibb, (Limestone.) 
1821-1825— Isreal Pickens, (Greene.) 
1825-1829— John Murphy, (Monroe.) 
1829-1831— Gabriel Moore, (Madison.) 
1831— Samuel B. Moore, (Jackson.) 
1831-1835— John Gayle, (Greene.) 
1835-1837— Clement C. Clay, (Madison.) 
1837— Hugh McVay, (Lauderdale.) 
1837-1841— Arthur P. Bagby, (Monroe.) 
1841-1845 — Benj. Fitzpatrick, (Autauga.) 
1845-1847 — Joshua L. Martin, (Tuscaloosa.) 
1847-1849— Reuben Chapman, (Madison.) 
1849-1853— Henry W. Collier, (Tuscaloosa.) 
1853-1857— John A. Winston, (Sumter.) 
1857-1861— Andrew B. Moore, (Perry.) 
1861-1863— John G. Shorter, (Barbour.) 
1863-1865— Thomas H. Watts, (Montgomery 
1865 — Lewis E. Parsons, (Talladega.) 



396 Appendix 

1865-1868— Robert M. Patton, (Lauderdale.) 
1868-1870— William H. Smith, (Randolph.) 
1870-1872— Robert B. Lindsay, (Colbert.) ' 
1872-1874— David P. Lewis, (Madison.) 
1874-1878 — George S. Houston, (Limestone.) 
1878-1882— Rufus W. Cobb, (Shelby.) 
1882-1886— Edward A. O'Neal, (Lauderdale.) 
1886-1890— Thomas Seay, (Hale.) 
1890-1894— Thomas G. Jones, (Montgomery.) 
1894-1896— William C. Gates, (Henry.) 
1896-1900— Joseph E. Johnston, (Jefferson.) 
1900— Wm. J. Samford. 
1901-1907— Wm. D. Jelks. 
1907-1911— B. B. Comer. 
1911 — Emmet O'Neal, (Lauderdale.) 



II— MA YORS, ETC., OF MOBILE. 

Presidents {Annual Term.) 

1814 — James Innerarity. 
1815 — Lewis Judson. 
1816 — James Innerarity. 
1817— Daniel Duvol. 
1818-1819— Samuel H. Garrow. 

Mayors of Mobile (Annual Term.) 

1820-1821— Addin Lewis. 
1822— John Elliott. 
1823— Addin Lewis. 
1824-1827— Samuel H. Garrow. 
1827-1829— John F. Everett. 
1830 — Samuel H. Garrow. 



Appendix 397 



1831-1834— Jno. Stocking, Jr. 
1835— J. F. Everett. 
1836— Geo. W. Owen. 
1837-1838— George Walton. 
1839^ — Henry Chamberlain. 
1840-1841— Edward Hall. 
1842-1844— Chas. A. Hoppin. 
1845-1846— Blanton McAlpine. 
1847— J. W. L. Childers. 
1848-1850— C. C. Langdon. 
1851 — Joseph Seawell. 
1852-1854— C. C. Langdon. 
1855-1859— Jones M. Withers. 
1860 — John Forsyth. 
1861-1865— R. H. Slough. 
1865 — John Forsyth. 
1866— J. M. Withers. 
1867— G. Horton. 
1868-1869— Caleb Price. 
1870 — George F. Harrington. 
1871— Martin Horst. 
1872— Gideon M. Parker. 
1873— Chas. F. Mouldon. 
1874— John Reid, Jr. 
1875-1877— Alphonse Hurtel. 
1878-1879— George G. Duffee. 

Recorder {Three Year Term.) 

1879-1886— Richard B. Owen. 

Mayor {Three Year Term.) 

1886 — R. B. Owen. 
1888-1893— Joseph C. Rich. 
1894 — Constantine L. Lavretta. 



398 Appendix 

1897— J. C. Bush. 
1900— Thomas S. Fry. 
1902— W. F. Walsh. 
1903— Charles E. McLean. 
1904— Pat. J. Lyons. 
1911 — Laz Schwarz. 



Ill— PRESENT MOBILE. 

1. Churches. The Lutheran church was built as early 
as 1868 near Wilkinson street, and the other churches 
have gradually followed the emigration of their people. 
The Methodist Beehive was among the first to move 
to the west, and its congregation is now at the corner 
of Broad and Government Streets. Similarly the Jackson 
Street Presbyterian Church have the ground which was 
Maury's headquarters on Ann and Dauphin, and across 
the street the Dauphin Way Baptist Church has been 
built. A handsome new synagogue has been built on 
Government street and the Orthodox Jews have erected 
a smaller one on Conti street a block away. The First Bap- 
tist Church has erected a handsome edifice on Govern- 
ment and Jefferson Streets. St. Joseph's Catholic Church 
has been rebuilt and with other public buildings faces a 
park recently laid out and named for Father Ryan. 
Many new churches, such as the Synagogue on Govern- 
ment, have been built and old ones improved. 

The negro churches show similar improvement. The 
old Methodist Beehive and the old Jackson Street Presby- 
terian Church are now colored churches, and the Little 
Zion, State Street Baptist, and other of the older edifices 
have been remodelled, often with taste. 



Appendix. 399 

2. Buildings. The business centre has been made over. 
In 1893 the old Guard House was demoUshed and a new 
prison and offices erected. Not the least of the good 
done by Mr. A. C. Harte during his long life in Mobile 
was the building of the handsome and useful Y. M. C. A. 
in 1897 on Government and Conception Streets, and 
the Fidelia and Athelstan Clubs also have put up hand- 
some homes. Office buildings began with the 
Pollock Building in 1903 and the Masonic Building shortly 
afterwards. Among the hotels the Bienville and Cawthon 
have been erected, and the Battle House rebuilt (1908) 
after a disastrous fire and on a handsomer scale. One 
of the most significant of the modern buildings is the City 
Bank and Trust Company erected in 1903, for this insti- 
tution introduced new methods of banking and has rapidly 
become one of the leading institutions of the city. A 
Rink was erected on Royal and St. Louis, and this became 
for a while a theatre and later the Lyric Theatre on Conti 
was built. The Mobile Theatre, on the site of the Mansion 
House, and long been the principal play-house, was remodel- 
led about the same time, but w a s burned eigain 
in 1913. The Van Antwerp Building was put 
up in 1907 and the Knights of Columbus Hall a few years 
later, and in the wholesale and retail business district 
many stores have been erected which are ornaments 
to the city. In these, however, there has been 
an unfortunate tendency to abolish the galleries 
o\er the sidewalks which are so characteristic of 
Mobile. The buildings erected towards the end of the last 
century followed convenience rather than any one style 
of architecture; those built of late years show more taste. 
They are quite generally of the Renaissance style for 
public buildings, and American Colonial, with great 
columns in front, for residences. Little has been done so 



400 Appendix 

far towards preserving the old Spanish and Creole houses, 
or towards building on their models, and such preservation 
of old types is necessary if Mobile is to keep its individu- 
ality. 

3. Banks and Industries. New banks like the City 
Bank and Trust Company, the Bank of Mobile and the 
Merchants Bank indicate the improvement in business, 
and cotton mills have been built with sufficient capital to 
become paying investments. The same might be said of 
wood and iron manufactories of different kinds, while 
the old lines of industry, like wholesale groceries, have 
increased in volume. 

4. The Mobile Newspapers. The Advertiser had dis- 
appeared at the time of the War, and the Tribune flourished 
under Jones M. Withers for some years afterwards. 
There also came papers called the Chroncile and the Herald, 
which at times were ably edited, and the W^eekly Item, 
established by John F. Cothran, finally became a daily; 
and the Mobile Register remained throughout, with 
unbroken usefulness. After the War John Forsyth con- 
tinued his able editorials in the Register, later came Joseph 
Hodgson, and afterwards Erwin Craighead. The manage- 
ment was until lately in John L. Rapier. These papers 
have been great factors in Mobile life, encouraging citizens 
under adversity and inspiring them to higher ideals. 

5. Trade. However important political, social and 
religious lite may be for the individual, the test and basis 
of the life of a city lies in its industries. These are the 
roots, the others the flowers. The business ot Mobile 
has always been mainly connected with commerce, — ^the 
bringing of raw material like cotton or lumber to the tide 
water and shipping it abroad, on the one side, and on the 
other bringing fruit or products from abroad to be shipped 
inland. This it is that makes up a port. The main 



Appendix 401 

reliance of Mobile since the eighties has been the foreign 
shipment of cotton, lumber and timber, and importation 
of bananas, together with the wholesale shipment of vege- 
tables and groceries to the interior. There has been a 
gradual growth in all these lines, and incidentally in bank- 
ing, insurance, retail trade and everything connected with 
commerce. 

During the eighties the cotton handled fluctuated between 
two hundred and twO hundred and fifty thousand bales, 
during the nineties it rose 364,766 bales, and the crop 
handled at Mobile in 1912 was 384,239 bales. The 
export of cotton has been principally to Liverpool in Eng- 
land, to Havre in France, and to Germany, and the amount 
shipped to France and that to Germany has in some years 
equalled the shipments to Great Britain. The amount of 
trade with Cuba is as great as with any European country. 

The timber and lumber trade has shown a gradual in- 
crease, and in 1912 amounted to five and a half million 
dollars and bananas to two millions and a quarter. 

On the whole the imports of Mobile have increased from 
less than half a million dollars in 1880 to almost five milliont 
in 1912, and exports from seven million dollars in 1880 
to almost thirty-three million in 1912. In tonnage Mobile 
is the ninth port in the United States, and the stages in its 
growth have been marked by the stept in the improvement 
of its harbor. The channel to the sea is the artery through 
which flows Mobile's life blood. 



INDEX 



Abolitionists, 285. 
Aconite, 98. 
Additions, 391. 
Adair, James, 116. 
Adobe, 176. 
Admiralty Chart, 136. 
Advertiser, 266. 
African Church, 243. 
Agriculture, 73. 

Alabama, Belts, 4; Territory, 206; 
State, 208, 280, 294; Troops, 311. 
Alabama City, 216. 
Alabama Platform, 285. 
Alabama Village, 153. 
Alabama River, 3, 380. 
Alabama, The 321. 
Alcalde, 162. 
Alibamons, 54, 79. 
Apalaches. 19, 24, 69, 102. 
Architecture, See- House, .'199. 
Armistice, 338. 
Arrowheads, 14. 
Artillery, 316, 354. 
Artisans, Spanish, 179. 
Augusta, Treaty of, 139. 
Authors, 88, 259. 
Austin, H.. 385. 

Bagby, A. P., 281. 

Bailey, Dixon, 199. 

Bakery, Royal. 135, 179. 

Baldwvn, M. J. D., 248. 

Banks, 207, 227, 2^2, 279, 370. 

Bank of U. S., 227, 232. 

Bank of Mobile, 227, 373. 

Bananas, 387. 

Baptists, 242. 

Barton Academy, 253, 254. 

Barton, W., 254. 

Baskett (Bassett), 150. 

Batteries. 295, 296. 

Battle House 271 273. 

Bartram. W. M. 151. 

Bayou. 40. 

Bazares, 28. 

Beasley, Major. 198. 

Beaver, 68. 

Bees, 152. 

Bellamv. 391. 

Bernhard, 212. 

Bernoudy Tract, 165. 288. 

Bibles. 300. 

Bibjiography, (Sec beginning of each 

Period). 
Bicentennial, 389. 
Bienville, 45,76, 96, 127. 
Bienville Square, 236, 277, 
Bienville Water Supply Co. 380 . 
Biloxi, 39; New, 96. 
Birmingham, 360. 
Black Belt, 280. 
Black Friday, 363. 
Bladon, 271. 
Blakely Island, 164. 



Blakely, 194. 

Blakely, Josiah, 104, 194. 

Blockade, 125, 297, 298. 

Blockade Runners, 298. 

Blue College, 252, 353. 

Board of Education (State), 353. 

Board of Trade, 376. 

Boats, 213. 

Boisbriant (Boisbrillant), 58. 

Bonapartists, 207, 214. 

Books, 305. 

Boundary, Choctaw, 142, 143. 

Bourgeois, 72, 78. 

Bowyer, Fort, 203. 

Boyles, W. A., 314. 

Bragg, Braxton, 318, 376. 

Bragg, John, 293. 

Bricks, 178. 

Bromberg, F. G., 377. 

Brown, John, 286. 

Browne, Montfort, 154. 

Buchanan, Admiral, 332. 

Buckeve, 153. 

Buck, W. A., 313. 

Buildings, 61. 

Burke, The, 364. 

Bullock, James, 321. 

Burgett, J. R., 240, 300. 

Burr, Aaron, 186. 

Burnt Corn, 198. 

Bus, 151. 

Busteed, Richard, 303. 353. 

Cadets, 292, 314, 354. 

Cadillac 76. 

Cahaba, 209, 259, 281; (River), 80, 278 

Cajans, 86. 

Caldwell, J. H., 232. 

Campbell, J. A.. 231, 277. 279, 282. 

308. 
Campbell, Gen.. 162. 
Canada, 127, 383. 
Canals, 75, 245. 
Canes, 150. 
Canoe Fight, 200. 
Cannon. 203. 215. 
Can't-Get-Away Club, 235. 
Capitals, 49, 281. 
Capuchins, 102. 
Carmelites. 102. 
Carney's Bluff, 148. 
Carolina, 53. 

Carpet- Baggers, 316, 357. 
Cathedral, 238. 
Catholics, 37, 165. 238. 
Catholic Church Records, 101, 
Cattle. 178. 

Cedar Point R. R., 247. 
Centinel, 2,59. 

Cemetery, 172, 173, 221 239, 355. 
Cessions, Indian, 195. 196. 220, 139. 
Channel (See Ship Channel) 
Charters, 75, 211. 
Charleston, 72, 110,245. 



404 



Index 



Chateau, 96. 

Chateaugue, 76, 83. 99. 

Chastang, 86. 

Charlotte. Fort, 130, 134. 162. 190. 

211. 
Chartres, Fort. 96. 
Chamber of Commerce, 376, 387. 
Chaudron, Madame, 263, ,306. 

Cherbourg. 322 

Cherry. 97. 

Chester, Peter, 155. 

Cherokees, 11. 

Chiaha. 25, 30. 

Chicasahay (Tchicachae), 102. 

Chickasaws (Chicacas), 7, 27, 146. 

Choctaw Point Bar, 247. 376. 

Choctaw Point Tract, 165. 

Choctaws, 8, 10, 145, Treaty, 140, 

Christ Church, 241. 

Church, Records, 101; Cures, 68; Angli- 
can, 137, 157; Spanish, 172, 173; 
War Times, 304. Present. 398. 

City Bank & Trust Co., 399. 

Civil War, 305, 306, 310. 

Claiborne, Gen., 201. 

Claiborne 201, 215. 230. 

Clarke County, 197. 

Clark. Francis B.. 362. 

Clark. W. G.. 266. 

Clausel. 210. 

Clarke. R. H.. 378. 

Clemens, Jere. 293. 

Clothes, 65. 

Clotilda, 285. 

Clothing, French, 65. 

Cloth, 67. 

Cloud, N. B., 352. 

Coast. 42. 

Coal. 232, 379. 

Coden, 56, 385. 

Coffee, 307. 

Cofetachequi, 139. 

Colbert, 75. 

Columbiad, 335. 

Collell Tract, 165. 

Commissaire, 51, 126. 

Concessions. 103. 

Commerce, 381. 

Commission Government. 390. 

Conception Street, 172, 226. 

Conde, Fort, 82. 

Confederation, Fort, 168, 184. 

Confederate States, 295, 302, 303 310 

Confederate Rest, 355. 

Colonization, Spanish, 19; French and 
English, 35, 48, 78; American, 183. 

Conquered Banner, 305. 

Constitution, 209. 

Convent. 160. 

Conveyances, (See Deeds.) 

Coosa (Cosa), 25. 

Cotton. 67, 178, 219, 221. 228, 
297, 371, 372. 373. .382. 

Cotton Exchange, 378, 384. 

Cotton Plant, The, 215. 

Courts. French, 105; Birtish 136; Con- 
federate, 303. 

Counties, 206. 



Coureurs de Bois, 77, ll4. 

Coutume de Paris, 70. 

Cowbellians, 224, 356. 

Cowpens, 178. 

Creeks, 151, 139, 140. 197, 

Creoles. 57, 67, 86, 107. 

Craighead, E., 400. 

Croftown, 136. 

Crozat. 75, 94. 

Cuba, 17. 

Cures, 68. 

Custom House, 251. 273, 

Dale, Sam, 204. 

Danner, A. C, 367, 376, 382. 

Dancing Rabbit Creek. Treaty. 220. 

D'Artaguette, 53. 

Dargan, E. S., 277, 293, 303. 

Davion, 38, 69, 101. 

Davis, Jefferson, 295. 

Dauphine Island, 53, 84, 94, 110, 204 

Dauphin Street, 219.274. 

Deeds, 104, 136, 164. 

Demopolis, 215. 

De Soto, 23, 27. 

De Leon, T. C, 392. 

Directory, 57. 

Discoveries, 16. 

Doctors, 269. 303. 

Dog River, 153. 247. 

Dorman, T. T.. 241. 

Douglas. S. A., 249, 291. 

Dow, Lorenzo, 239. 

Dry Goods, 67. 

Durnford, E., 129, 136, 162. 

Duffee, Geo. G.. 358. 

Dunn. Wm. D.. 362.' 

Education, 88, 157, 252, 254, 256. 

Ellicott, Andrew, 170; Stone, 169.- 

Emerson Institute, 353. 

England, 75. 

Episcopalians, 241. 

Eslava, Miguel, 163. 

Espejo, Antonio, 166, 179. 

Evans. Augusta (See Wilson, A. E.) 

Explosion, 340. 

Exports, 373, 374. 

Fair Association, 368. 

Famines, 72. 

Farmar, Robert, 134. 135. 152, 155. 

Farmar's Island, 165. 

Farragut, D. G., 330. 

Federal Road, 197. 

Ferdinand, Father, 137. 

Fever, (See Yellow.) 

Figs, 152. 

Fire Department, 386. 

Fire Companies, 233. 

Fire Department Insurance Company, 

368. 
Fires, 233. 234. 388. 
First Regiment, 276, 310. • 
Fisher Tract, 165. 
Fleets, Plate, 21; Mosquito, 112. 
Fleming, L. J., 360. 
Florida, 134, 323. 



Index 



405 



Flush Times, 226. 

Foods, 56. 

Folch, 163. 

Forbes, & Co., 179, ISl, 219. 

Forrest, N. B., 303. 

Forts, 78, 296; (See Different Names.) 

Forsyth, John, 265, 393. 

France, 35, 51, 75. 

Franklin Society, 228. 

French Colonization, 49, 78. 

Gage, C. P., 242. 

Gaines, Fort, 292. 

Gaines, Geo. S., 200, 220, 249. 

Gaines, E. P., 246. 

Galvez, 161, 162. 

Gallery, Front, 90, 274. 

Gardens, 97. 

Garrow, Samuel H., 165, 222. 

Gardner, The, 364. 

Gas Works. 231. 

Gayle, John, 280, 282. 

Gazzam, A. H., 226. 

Gazette, 259. 265. 

German Fusiliers, 354. 

Ghent, Peace of 201. 

Gin, Cotton, 219. 

Ginseng, 98. 

Girard, 58. 

Glass, 87. 

Goetzel, S. H. 264, 306. 

Goods, Stocks, 176. 

Governor, 126, Appendi.K. 

Government, .51. 

Gorgas, W. C, 308. 

Gracie. A.. 292, 312. 

Grants, Spanish, 163, 165. 

Grant's Pass, 236, 381. 

Grapes, 56. 

Graveyard, 221, (See Cemetery) 

Great Northern, 361. 

Grand Trunk. 362, 385. 

Guard House, 235. 273. 399. 

Grondel. 148. 

Gumbo, 56, 98. 

Habitant, 67, 90. 
Hagan, Jas., 315. 
Hale, Mrs., 252, 260. 
Haldimand, Frederick, 136, 156. 
Hamilton, W. T., 240; Thos. A., 308, 

376; Peter, 347. 
Hamilton, P. J., 392. 
Havana, 99, 298. 
Hat Question, 67. 
Harbor, 211, 375. 
Harrington, Geo. F., 349. 
Harriet, The, 215. 
Health, 136. 
Hermes. The, 203. 
Herndon, T. H., 293. 347. 
HiKuins, N., 275. 
Iliylcv, J. H., 314, 354, 356. 
Hitchcock, Henry, 230. 231, 232, 240, 

254, 2.59. 
Hodgson, Jos., 353, 376. 
Hearin, W. J., 367. 
Holiday, 87. 



Holy Ground, 201. 

Home Guard, 316. 

Home Life, 86, 390. 

Horton, 230, 2.55. 

House, French, 56, 65, 73, 76, 87; 
152, 163; Spanish, 176, 226; Ameri- 
can, 184. 

Houston, Geo. S., 358. 

Hubert, 96. 

Huguenots, 29, 68. 

Hunter, Annie T., 3.55. 

Hurtel, Alphonse, 358. 

Iberville, 38, 44, 52, 84. 

Immobile, 53. 

Indians, (See different tribes). Coast, 6: 

Relics, 13; Mounds, 12. 

Weapons, etc., 13; French. l58; 

British, 1.39, 145; Spanish, 179,; 

Cession, 195. 220. 
Indian Trade, 79, 176. 
Indigo, 177. 
Industries, 67. 
Infant Mystics, 356. 
Ingraham, J. H., 241. 263, 
Interpreter, 165. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 373. 
Ipecacuanha. 98. 
Intendant, 51, 126; Spanish, 163. 
Iron, 274, 379. 

Jamaica, 17. 

Jackson, Andrew, 202, 203. 

Jackson, Fort, 202; Treaty, 206. 

Jews, 242.,39S. 

Jetties, 375. 

Johnson, Charles Archie. 352. 

Johnstone. Geo.. 154. 

Jones, I. I., 243. 

Jones, W. G., 282, 303, 353. 

Jones, J. T., 377. 

Kansas City R. R., 385. 
Kelley, W. D. 348. 
Kennedy, Wm. E., 164. 
Kennedy, Joshua, 165. 
Ketchum, G. A., 258. 
Kemper Raid, 187. 
Kirbv, Ephraim, 185. 
Krafft, M., 224. 
Ku Klux, 356. 

LaFayette, 212. 
Lakanal, 210. 
Land Offices, 196. 
Land Titles, 195, 196. 
Langdon, C. C, 266, 276, 282, 346, 368. 
Lanzos, 163. 
La Salle, C. 35, 49. 
La Salle, N., 45, 52, 58, 69. . 
La Vente, 52, 69. 
Law Book, 70, 186. 259. 
Lawrence. Maj. 203. 204. 
Law, John, 93; Concessions, 97; Com- 
pany. 94. 
Lead. 146. 
LeCamp, 57. 
Legislature, 207. 
LeVert, Madame, 261. 



^ 



406 



Index 



Lewis. Addin, 208. 

Life, Colonial, 40; Plantation, 227. 

Lighthouse. 224, 299. 

Light Infantry, 311, 354. 

Lightering, 271. 

Lincoln, A., 291. 

Literature, 70, 186. 200, 395, 391. 

Lizard, 148. 

Log Cabin, 184. 

Loudon, Fort, 139. 

Lord, John. 242. 

Lot Company, 211. 

Louisiana Purchase. 170. 

Louis XIV, 35, 40, 51, 93. 

Louisiana, 40, 171. 

Louisville & Nashville R. R., 364. 

Louis, Fort, 46; 167. 389. New, 61, 

Lyell, Sir Charles, 232. 264. 

Ludlow, N. M., 264. 

Ludlow. N. K., 300, 325. 

Lumber, 178. 223, 382. 

Lutherans, 398. 

Lyon ,F. S., 279. 

McGrew's Shoals. 150. 
Mcintosh Bluff. 150. 
McKinstry, A., 314, 349. 
McLoskey. Hagan & Co.. 219. 
McVoy Tract, 165. 

Magasin, 85. 

Maize. 7. 

Manchac, Bayou, 129. 134. 153. 161. 

Mandeville Tract. 65, 165. 

Manufactures. 228, 278, 368. 

Mann. Wm. D.. 362. 

Mardi Gras. 87, 356. 

Market House. 193. 

Marriages. 55. 103. 

Massey. J. A., 241. 

Maubila, 26. 

Maurepas. Fort. 39. 

Maury. D. H., 302. 337. 

Maury. Harry. 314. 315. 

Medical College, 257. 

Medicines, 98, 152. 

Meek. A. B.. 256. 259. 

Memorial Association. 355. 

Mermaid, 111. 

Merchandise, 176. 

Mestif (Metif). 58. 

Methodists, 240. 398. 

Mexico, 17. 

Military, 276. 302, 310. 

Militia Men, Six, 205. 

Mims, Fort, 198. 

Missionaries, 20. J7. 68. 

Mississippi Bubble, 93. ^ 

Mississippi River, 3.27. 

Mississippi Territory, 184. 

Mobile — Founded. 45; 1706. 46; Direc- 
tory, 57, 58; Streets. 58, population, 
59; Trade with Spaniards, 81; 
French, 61, 64, 88; British Occupa- 
tion, 130; Merchants, 136; Disfran- 
chised, 157; Spanish Capture, 102; 
Grants, 163, 165; Spanish Titles 
for City, 175;Business, 179; Popu- 



lation, 182; Captured by Americans, 
190; Government, 193; Charter. 
211; Buildings. 221; Gay. 228; 
Debt, 235; American, 286; Stamps, 
29 4;Fortifipations. 295; War Times, 
303; Military Headquarters, 302; 
Supply Asscoiation, 307; Regiments. 
312; Charter Annulled, 365; Police 
Board, 365; New Men, 367; French- 
men, 367; Germans. 368; Cotton 
District, 369; Charter, 386. Com- 
mission Government. 390; Social 
Life. 390. 

Mobile & Birmingham R. R., 385. 

Mobile & Montgomery R. R.. 361. 

Mobile & Northwestern R. R., 362. 

Mobile & Ohio R. R., 248, 359, 372. 
384. 

Montreal. 37. 

Monberault, 138, 142. 

Montgomery, 215, 281. 

Money, 125. 

Moore, Capt., 337. 

Morgan, Fort, 292, 224. 

Mortar, 140. 

Moss Point. 111. 

Mounds. Indian. 12. 

Moulton, C. T., 358. 

Municipal Building, 273. 

Muscogees (Creeks), 10. 

Murrell, Jno., 165, 167. 

Napoleon, 208. 

National Cemetery, 355. 

Nanipacna, 29. 

Natchez, 96, 136. 169. 

Naval Stores. 223. 

Narvaez, 18. 

Neely .P. P., 241, 263. 

Negroes. 30, 57, 283; Free, 172, 283; 

Churches,243;.After the War 350-398 
New Orleans, 96, 204. 298. 
New Orleans. Mobile & Chattanooga 

R. R., 361. 
New Orleans, Mobile & Texas R. R.. 

361. 
Newspapers. 259. 400. 
Notary. 105. 136, 164. 
Nott, J. C, 257, 261. 

Obstructions, 296. 

Ocean Wave, 364. 

Octibbeha River, 146. 

O'Hara, Theodore, 266( 311, 313. 

Old Grave Yard, 355. 

Osorno, 163. 

Orphan Asvlum, 235. 

Orange Grove Tract, 165. 228. 

Order of Myths. 356. 

Overflow, 59. 

Otis. Wm.382. 

Padres. 173. 

Page. Gen.. 332. 

Paillou. 65. 

Panic. 232, 368, 384. 

Panton, Leslie & Co.. 180. 

Pardo, 29. 



Index 



407 



Parks, 236. 277. 

Pascagoula, 111. 

Peace, (See Treaties.) 

Peach, 97. 152. 

Pecan, 154. 

Penicaut, 42, 89. 

Pelham Cadets, 332. 

Pelican, 55. 

Pensacola, 31, 98, 130, 272. 

Perez, 163, 

Phillips, P., 282. 

Pineda, 18. 

Pinckney's Treatv, 169. 

Pinney, N., 252, 263, 353. 

Plank Roads, 271. 

Planters, 227. 

Plate Fleets, 21. 

Plum, 97. 

Point Clear, 224. 

Police, 276. 

Population, 72, 181, 195, 208, 291. 

Port, 393. 

Port Dauphin, 85, 94. 

Portersville, 236, 237. 

Portier, 238. 

Post Office, 273, 294. 

Potato, 97. 

Pottery, 14. 

Powell, Fort, 332. 

Presbyterians, 239. 398. 

Presses, 270. 

Priests, 174. 

Price Claim, 166, 228. 

Price, Caleb, 349. 

Primrose, 152. 

Prise de possession, 49. 

Protestants, 239. 

Provinces, Spanish, 31. 

Public Lands, 196. 

Pushmataha, 199. 

Putnam, G. L.. 352. 

Quebec Seminary, 37. 68. 
Quinlan, Bishop, 239. 

Railroads, Early, 246, 272, 280 (See 

Their Several Names.) 
Railroad Commission, 372. 
Rapier, J. L., 367. 400. 
Reconstruction, 346, 349. 
Records. 101, 174. 
Register, 259. 

Registers, Church, 101, 172, 174. 
Regiments, 310,311. 
Regent, 93. 
Reid. John, 358. 
Remonville, 84. 
Renommee, 55, 84. 
Requier, A. J., 263. 
Rich, J. C, 386. 

Rifle Company, 220, 292, 354, 388. 
Rivers, 3, 213, 215, 269, 379. 
Roads, 136, 246, 213. 271, 
Rochelle, La., 83. 
Romans, Bernard, 144, 145, 147. 
Ross. J. F„ 229. 
Ryan, A. J.. 304. 391. 

St. Anthony, 84. 




St. Denis, 65, 81. 99. 

St. Johns. 241. 

St. Josephs, 239. 

St. Louis Day, 87. 

St. Louis Tract. 165. 

St. Stephen, Fort, 168, 170. 

St. Stephens, 186, 195, 206. 207. 229. 

389. 
St. Vincents. 239. 



Sagean. M.. 44, 47. 

Sailors, 319. 

San Domingo. 39. 

Sand Island Light, 299. 

Sanford, Thaddeus, 265. 294. 

Sassafras. 98. 

Sauvole. 40. 

Scalawags. 346. 

Schools (See Education.) 

Sea Power. 319. 

Secession, 293. 

Seigneurs, 70. 72. 

Selma, 215. 

Semmes, O. J., 358. 

Semmes, Raphael, 305, 317, 319, 321. 

Seminary of Quebec, 37. 68. 

Shell Road, 223. 271. 

Ship Channel, 376, 378. 

Shipping, 82, 83, 84, 95. 377. 

Shops. 125. 176. 

Signs, Street, 274. 

Silver, 146. 

Slavery. 30. 283. 284. 291. 366. 

Slaver, the Last, 284. 

Smith, R. H., 277, 314, 354. 

Smith, W. R., 259. 

Social Life, 40. 227. 390. 

Soil. 3. 

Soldiers Rest. 317. 

Southern Railway, 385. 

Spain, 16, 99. 169. 

Spanish Fort. 162. 

Spanish Grants, 165. 226. 

Spanish War, 388. 

Spiritu Santo, 16. 

Spring Hill, 223. 

Spring Hill College, 257. 

Stamps, 294. 

Staples, The, 364. 

Steamboats, 214, 216, 269, 364. 

Steamships, 380. 

Stein, A. D. 231. 

Stewart, Geo. N., 230. 

Stickney, H., 219. 

Stockton, 135. 

Stoddert, Fort. 183. 185. 

Stone Age. 13. 

Stores. 274. (See Shops.) 

Street Railroads. 371. 

Strikers, 356. 

Stuart, John, 139. 

Submarine, 325. 

Sumter. The, 320. 

Supply Association, 307. 

Swan, The, 300. 

Swanson and McGillivray, 152, 180. 

Synagogue. 243. 



408 



Index 



f^ 



80, 



T. D. S., 356. 

Taxes, 193. 

Taylor, Dick, 337. 

Taylor, H., 388, 

Tea, 307. 

Temperance Hall, 274. 

Tennessee, The, 328. 

Tensaw Bluff. 135, 152. 

Tensaws, 53. 

Territory, 183. 

Theatres, 264. 39V\ 

Thomas, Geo. H., 355. 

Timber, 383. 

Titles, 195. 

Titus, Jas.. 207. 

Todd. J. B., 292. 

Tomahawk, 13. 

Tombecbe, Fort, 118, 138. 

Tombeckbe Bank, 207, .'■-7. 

Tombigbee (Tombecbe) River, 3, 

144, 380. 
Toulouse. Fort, 78, 79, 117, 130, 
Toulmin, Harry. 185, 259, 358. 
Tonty, 55. 
Towle, A., 253. 
Trade, 81. 115, 176. 400. 
Traders, 53. 81. 176. 
Trades. 56. 
Transportation, 213. 
Traversier, 83, 85. 
Treaties, Paris. 1763, 120; Choctaw, 1765 

140; Augusta, 139; Dancing Rabbit, 

220. 
Trinity Church, 241. 
Tristan. 29. 
Troup, Geo. M., 150. 

Walker, Percy. 230, 2? 4. 
Walker, William, 264. 
Warehouses, 226. 
Warrior River, 384. 
Wasliington District, 181 
Water Street, 219. 
Water Works, 231. 
Watts. T. H., 339. 
Wax Myrtle, 98. 152. 
Weatherford, Wm.. 199, 201. 



West Alabama R. R., 385. U 

West Florida, 134, 135; Governors, 155, 
Election Districts, 157; Seal, 147; 
Cession, 162; Boundaries, Spanish, 
168; Americans Feared, 182. 

West Indies, 387. 

West Point R. R., 246. 

Wetumpka, 215. 

Wharves, 217, 270. 349. 

Whigs, 281, 286, 312. 

White Camelia, Knights of, 356. 

Whiting, J. W., 316. 367. 

Whitney's Gin, 219. 

Wickersham, M. D., 367. 

Widows Row, 222. 

Wilkinson, Jas., 190. 

Williams. Price, Jr., 315, 358. 

Willimas. J. M., 332. 

Wilmer, R. H., 242. 

Wilson, A. E.. 262, 391. 

Withers, J. M., 277. 312. 348. 

Wives. 55, 87. 

Woodruff. L. T., 292, 314, 376. 

Wool, 67. 

Tuomey, 232. 
Tuscaloosa, 215,. 281. 
Twenty-Seven Mile Bluff, 45, 87, (See 
Louis, Fort.) 

Union Church, 239. 

United States Court, 282. 

United States and Spain, 169; France. 

170, 171. 
University, 256. 

Vaqueria, M. 178. 

Vegetables, 74. 

Village, 224. 

Vine and Olive Colony, 207, 230. 

Yancey, W. L., 292, 293. 
Yellow Fever, 55, 234, 389. 
Y. M. C. A., 239. 
Youpon, 08, 153. 
Yuille, 230. 



r«. 



